A Review of Transport Practices and Mortalities in pigs in Australia

The closure of abattoirs in Australia dictates that pigs will be transported over greater distances resulting in increased costs and reduced margins for producers. Factors contributing to reduced margins could include increased freight costs, reduced scale weight as a result of reduced killing out percentage and condemnations (due to injuries) plus possible increased deaths in transport. More information is needed in Australia on transport practices and mortalities to address knowledge deficiencies in our understanding of the welfare implications of road transport.

Atrazine degradation and transport in runoff on a Black Vertosol

In Australia communities are concerned about atrazine being detected in drinking water supplies. It is important to understand mechanisms by which atrazine is transported from paddocks to waterways if we are to reduce movement of agricultural chemicals from the site of application. Two paddocks cropped with grain sorghum on a Black Vertosol were monitored for atrazine, potassium chloride (KCl) extractable atrazine, desethylatrazine (DEA), and desisopropylatrazine (DIA) at 4 soil depths (0-0.05, 0.05-0.10, 0.10-0.20, and 0.20-0.30 m) and in runoff water and runoff sediment. Atrazine + DEA + DIA (total atrazine) had a half-life in soil of 16-20 days, more rapid dissipation than in many earlier reports. Atrazine extracted in dilute potassium chloride, considered available for weed control, was initially 34% of the total and had a half-life of 15-20 days until day 30, after which it dissipated rapidly with a half life of 6 days. We conclude that, in this region, atrazine may not pose a risk for groundwater contamination, as only 0.5% of applied atrazine moved deeper than 0.20 m into the soil, where it dissipated rapidly. In runoff (including suspended sediment) atrazine concentrations were greatest during the first runoff event (57 days after application) (85 μg/L) and declined with time. After 160 days, the total atrazine lost in runoff was 0.4% of the initial application. The total atrazine concentration in runoff was strongly related to the total concentration in soil, as expected. Even after 98% of the KCl-extractable atrazine had dissipated (and no longer provided weed control), runoff concentrations still exceeded the human health guideline value of 40 μg/L. For total atrazine in soil (0-0.05 m), the range for coefficient of soil sorption (Kd) was 1.9-28.4 mL/g and for soil organic carbon sorption (KOC) was 100-2184 mL/g, increasing with time of contact with the soil and rapid dissipation of the more soluble, available phase. Partition coefficients in runoff for total atrazine were initially 3, increasing to 32 and 51 with time, values for DEA being half these. To minimise atrazine losses, cultural practices that maximise rain infiltration, and thereby minimise runoff, and minimise concentrations in the soil surface should be adopted.

Runoff, soil loss, and nutrient transport from cropping systems on Red Ferrosols in tropical northern Australia.

Runoff, soil loss, and nutrient loss were assessed on a Red Ferrosol in tropical Australia over 3 years. The experiment was conducted using bounded, 100-m(2) field plots cropped to peanuts, maize, or grass. A bare plot, without cover or crop, was also instigated as an extreme treatment. Results showed the importance of cover in reducing runoff, soil loss, and nutrient loss from these soils. Runoff ranged from 13% of incident rainfall for the conventional cultivation to 29% under bare conditions during the highest rainfall year, and was well correlated with event rainfall and rainfall energy. Soil loss ranged from 30 t/ha. year under bare conditions to <6 t/ha. year under cropping. Nutrient losses of 35 kg N and 35 kg P/ha. year under bare conditions and 17 kg N and 11 kg P/ha. year under cropping were measured. Soil carbon analyses showed a relationship with treatment runoff, suggesting that soil properties influenced the rainfall runoff response. The cropping systems model PERFECT was calibrated using runoff, soil loss, and soil water data. Runoff and soil loss showed good agreement with observed data in the calibration, and soil water and yield had reasonable agreement. Longterm runs using historical weather data showed the episodic nature of runoff and soil loss events in this region and emphasise the need to manage land using protective measures such as conservation cropping practices. Farmers involved in related, action-learning activities wished to incorporate conservation cropping findings into their systems but also needed clear production benefits to hasten practice change.

Improving Knowledge and Practices in Mango Supply Chains

Mangoes consigned to domestic markets suffered from fruit quality problems from 1997 to 2000. A high incidence of disease breakdown and green-ripe fruit resulted in loss of confidence by marketers, and reduced profits for everyone from grower to retailer. The ‘Better Mangoes’ project was initiated to identify where, and why quality was being lost, and to use this information to improve the knowledge and practices of supply chain businesses.

Pig effluent-P application can increase risk of P transport: two case studies

Land application of piggery effluent (containing urine, faeces, water, and wasted feed) is under close scrutiny as a potential source of water resource contamination with phosphorus (P). This paper investigates two case studies of the impact of long-term piggery effluent-P application to soil. A Natrustalf (Sodosol) at P1 has received a net load of 3700 kg effluent P/ha over 19 years. The Haplustalf (Dermosol) selected (P2) has received a net load of 310 000 kg P/ha over 30 years. Total, bicarbonate extractable, and soluble P forms were determined throughout the soil profiles for paired (irrigated and unirrigated) sites at P1 and P2, as well as P sorption and desorption characteristics. Surface bicarbonate (PB, 0 - 0.05 m depth) and dilute CaCl2 extractable molybdate-reactive P (PC) have been significantly elevated by effluent irrigation (P1: PB unirrigated 23±1, irrigated 290±6; PC unirrigated 0.03±0.00, irrigated 23.9±0.2. P2: PB unirrigated 72±48, irrigated 3950±1960; PC unirrigated 0.7±0.0, irrigated 443±287 mg P/kg; mean±s.d.). Phosphorus enrichment to 1.5 m, detected as PB, was observed at P2. Elevated concentrations of CaCl2 extractable organic P forms (POC; estimated by non-molybdate reactive P in centrifuged supernatants) were observed from the soil surface of P1 to a depth of 0.4 m. Despite the extent of effluent application at both of these sites, only P1 displayed evidence of significant accumulation of POC. The increase in surface soil total P (0 - 0.05 m depth) due to effluent irrigation was much greater than laboratory P sorption (>25 times for P1; >57 times for P2) for a comparable range of final solution concentrations (desorption extracts ranged from 1-5 mg P/L for P1 and 50-80 mg P/L for P2). Precipitation of sparingly soluble P phases was evidenced in the soils of the P2 effluent application area.

Grower group case study on new farming practices in the Herbert region, Australia

Growers working together have proven to be a successful method for improving the utilization of farm resources and accelerating the adoption of the Sugar Yield Decline Joint Venture principles (SYDJV). The Pinnacle Precision Farming Group was formed in 2004 with the aim to bring together the ideas, knowledge and resources of growers in the Herbert region. Along with their common interest in controlled traffic, minimal tillage and crop rotations, the grower group utilize a farm machinery contractor to provide some of their major farming operations. This paper provides an insight into the changes made by the Pinnacle Precision Farming Group and their journey to adopt the new farming system practices. This paper also details the changes made by the group machinery contractor and a comparison of the old and new farming systems used by a group member. A focus point of the document is the impact of the new farming system on the economic, social and environmental components of the farming business. Analysis of the new farming system with a legume crop rotation revealed an increase in the farm gross margin by AU$22 024 and, in addition, a reduction in tractor operation time by 38% across the whole farm. This represents a return on marginal capital of 14.68 times the original capital outlay required by the group member. Using the new farming system without a legume crop will still improve the group members whole of farm gross margin by AU$6 839 and reduce tractor operation time by 43% across the whole farm. The Pinnacle Precision Farming group recognize the need to continually improve their farming businesses and believe that the new farming system principles are critical for the long term viability of the industry. [U$1 = AU$1.19].

Improving knowledge and practices in fresh produce chains

A successful supply chain must delivery the right product, value and satisfaction to the end customer, and profitability for its participants. Critical to getting the product right is the practices used to produce and maintain product quality through the supply chain from production to sale to the end customer. This paper describes the approach used by a R&D team to add value to supply chains through improving knowledge and practices. The desired outcome is better produce quality for consumers and more control and less wastage for chain participants. The team worked with specific supply chains to identify areas for improvement and to develop, test and implement improved practices. The knowledge gained was communicated to the industry to gain wider adoption of results. Three conditions were identified as critical for practice change - motivation, knowledge, and capacity for change. For improvement in practices to occur, a business must be motivated and have the knowledge and capacity to improve. Two case studies of working with Australian supply chains (mango and melons) are presented to illustrate our participatory methodology. A key activity is monitoring produce quality and handling practices and conditions to demonstrate to participants the points where quality deterioration occurs in the supply chain. This participatory approach is successful because working with supply chain participants generates knowledge and solutions to real problems. It enables the participants to observe the effect of handling practices and conditions on produce quality, gain knowledge and assess the benefits of improvements. Where existing knowledge is not present, research is conducted to fill the knowledge gaps. IV International Conference on Managing Quality in Chains - The Integrated View on Fruits and Vegetables Quality

The physiological and metabolic impacts on sheep and cattle of feed and water deprivation before and during transport

Sheep and cattle are frequently subjected to feed and water deprivation (FWD) for about 12 h before, and then during, transport to reduce digesta load in the gastrointestinal tract. This FWD is marked by weight loss as urine and faeces mainly in the first 24 h but continuing at a reduced rate subsequently. The weight of rumen contents falls although water loss is to some extent masked by saliva inflow. FWD is associated with some stress, particularly when transportation is added. This is indicated by increased levels of plasma cortisol that may be partly responsible for an observed increase in the output of water and N in urine and faeces. Loss of body water induces dehydration that may induce feelings of thirst by effects on the hypothalamus structures through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. There are suggestions that elevated cortisol levels depress angiotensin activity and prevent sensations of thirst in dehydrated animals, but further research in this area is needed. Dehydration coupled with the discharge of Na in urine challenges the maintenance of homeostasis. In FWD, Na excretion in urine is reduced and, with the reduction in digesta load, Na is gradually returned from the digestive tract to the extracellular fluid space. Control of enteropathogenic bacteria by normal rumen microbes is weakened by FWD and resulting infections may threaten animal health and meat safety. Recovery time is required after transport to restore full feed intake and to ensure that adequate glycogen is present in muscle pre-slaughter to maintain meat quality.

Survey of weed flora and management relative to cropping practices in the north-eastern grain region of Australia

The main weeds and weed management practices undertaken in broad acre dryland cropping areas of north-eastern Australia have been identified. The information was collected in a comprehensive postal survey of both growers and agronomists from Dubbo in New South Wales (NSW) through to Clermont in central Queensland, where 237 surveys were returned. A very diverse weed flora of 105 weeds from 91 genera was identified for the three cropping zones within the region (central Queensland, southern Queensland and northern NSW). Twenty-three weeds were common to all cropping zones. The major common weeds were Sonchus oleraceus, Rapistrum rugosum, Echinochloa spp. and Urochloa panicoides. The main weeds were identified for both summer and winter fallows, and sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops for each of the zones, with some commonality as well as floral uniqueness recorded. More genera were recorded in the fallows than in crops, and those in summer fallows exceeded the number in winter. Across the region, weed management relied heavily on herbicides. In fallows, glyphosate and mixes with glyphosate were very common, although the importance of the glyphosate mix partner differed among the cropping zones. Use and importance of pre-emergence herbicides in-crop varied considerably among the zones. In wheat, more graminicides were used in northern NSW than in southern Queensland, and virtually none were used in central Queensland, reflecting the differences in winter grass weed flora across the region. Atrazine was the major herbicide used in sorghum, although metolachlor was also used predominantly in northern NSW. Fallow and inter-row cultivation were used more often in the southern areas of the region. Grazing of fallows was more prominent in northern NSW. High crop seeding rates were not commonly recorded indicating that growers are not using crop competition as a tool for weed management. Although many management practices were recorded overall, few growers were using integrated weed management, and herbicide resistance has been and continues to be an issue for the region.

Strawberry: best soil, water and nutrient management practices

A guide to better soil, water and nutrient management practices for the south east Queensland strawberry industry.

Weed management in wide-row cropping systems: a review of current practices and risks for Australian farming systems.

Growing agricultural crops in wide row spacings has been widely adopted to conserve water, to control pests and diseases, and to minimise problems associated with sowing into stubble. The development of herbicide resistance combined with the advent of precision agriculture has resulted in a further reason for wide row spacings to be adopted: weed control. Increased row spacing enables two different methods of weed control to be implemented with non-selective chemical and physical control methods utilised in the wide inter-row zone, with or without selective chemicals used on the on-row only. However, continual application of herbicides and tillage on the inter-row zone brings risks of herbicide resistance, species shifts and/or changes in species dominance, crop damage, increased costs, yield losses, and more expensive weed management technology.

The adoption of sustainable grazing land management practices in the Burdekin Rangelands of northern Australia.

The Burdekin Rangelands is a diverse area of semi-arid eucalypt and acacia savannah covering six million hectares in north eastern Australia. The major land use is cattle grazing on 220 commercial cattle properties (average size 26,000 ha) each carrying on average 2600 adult equivalents. Production was the focus of the beef industry and support agencies prior to the mid 1980's. Widespread land degradation during the 1980's led to a grassroots realisation that environmental impacts, including water quality had to be addressed for the beef industry to attain sustainability. The formation of a series of producer based landcare gropus and the support of several Queensland and Australian government research and extension agencies led to a greater awareness and adoption of sound grazing land management practices (Shepherd 2005).

The physiological and behavioral responses of steers to gaseous ammonia in simulated long distance transport by ship.

Ammonia (NH3) can accumulate in high density cattle accommodation during live export shipments and could potentially threaten the animals' health and welfare. The effects of 4 NH3 concentrations, control (<8), 15, 30, and 45 ppm, on the physiology and behavior of steers were recorded. The animals were held for 12 d under a micro-climate and stocking density similar to shipboard conditions experienced on voyages from Australia to the Middle East during the northern hemispheric summer. In bronchoalveolar lavage samples, ammonia increased (P < 0.05) macrophage activity in proportion to NH3 concentration and it increased (P < 0.05) neutrophil percentage at 30 and 45 ppm, indicating active pulmonary inflammation. It also increased (P < 0.05) lacrimation, nasal secretions and coughing, particularly at 45 ppm, indicating that the NH3 was irritating the mucous membranes of the eyes, nasal cavity and respiratory tract. Ammonia had no effect (P > 0.05) on hematological parameters or body weight. Twenty-eight days after exposure to NH3, the steers' pulmonary macrophage activity and neutrophil levels had returned to normal. It was concluded that ammonia concentrations of 30 and 45 ppm induced temporary inflammatory responses which indicate an adverse effect on the welfare of steers.

Best management practices for sustainable and safe playing surface of Australian Football League sports fields

In 2002, AFL Queensland and the Brisbane Lions Football Club approached the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (Queensland) for advice on improving their Premier League sports fields. They were concerned about player safety and dissatisfaction with playing surfaces, particularly uneven turf cover and variable under-foot conditions. They wanted to get the best from new investments in ground maintenance equipment and irrigation infrastructure. Their sports fields were representative of community-standard, multi-use venues throughout Australia; generally ‘natural’ soil fields, with low maintenance budgets, managed by volunteers. Improvements such as reconstruction, drainage, or regular re-turfing are generally not affordable. Our project aimed to: (a) Review current world practice and performance benchmarks; (b) Demonstrate best-practice management for community-standard fields; (c) Adapt relevant methods for surface performance testing; (d) Assess current soils, and investigate useful amendments; (e) Improve irrigation system performance; and (e) Build industry capacity and encourage patterns for ongoing learning. Most global sports field research focuses on elite, sand-based fields. We adjusted elite standards for surface performance (hardness, traction, soil moisture, evenness, sward cover/height) and maintenance programs, to suit community-standard fields with lesser input resources. In regularly auditing ground conditions across 12 AFLQ fields in SE QLD, we discovered surface hardness (measured by Clegg Hammer) was the No. 1 factor affecting player safety and surface performance. Other important indices were turf coverage and surface compaction (measured by penetrometer). AFLQ now runs regularly audits affiliated fields, and closes grounds with hardness readings greater than 190 Gmax. Aerating every two months was the primary mechanical practice improving surface condition and reducing hardness levels to < 110 Gmax on the renovated project fields. With irrigation installation, these fields now record surface conditions comparable to elite fields. These improvements encouraged many other sporting organisations to seek advice / assistance from the project team. AFLQ have since substantially invested in an expanded ground improvement program, to cater for this substantially increased demand. In auditing irrigation systems across project fields, we identified low maintenance (with < 65% of sprinklers operating optimally) as a major problem. Retrofitting better nozzles and adjusting sprinklers improved irrigation distribution uniformity to 75-80%. Research showed that reducing irrigation frequency to weekly, and preparedness to withhold irrigation longer after rain, reduced irrigation requirement by 30-50%, compared to industry benchmarks of 5-6 ML/ha/annum. Project team consultation with regulatory authorities enhanced irrigation efficiency under imposed regional water restrictions. Laboratory studies showed incorporated biosolids / composts, or topdressed crumb rubber, improved compaction resistance of soils. Field evaluations confirmed compost incorporation significantly reduced surface hardness of high wear areas in dry conditions, whilst crumb rubber assisted turf persistence into early winter. Neither amendment was a panacea for poor agronomic practices. Under the auspices of the project Trade Mark Sureplay®, we published > 80 articles, and held > 100 extension activities involving > 2,000 participants. Sureplay® has developed a multi-level curator training structure and resource materials, subject to commercial implementation. The partnerships with industry bodies (particularly AFLQ), frequent extension activities, and engagement with government/regulatory sectors have been very successful, and are encouraged for any future work. Specific aspects of sports field management for further research include: (a) Understanding of factors affecting turf wear resistance and recovery, to improve turf persistence under wear; (b) Simple tests for pinpointing areas of fields with high hardness risk; and (c) Evaluation of new irrigation infrastructure, ‘water-saving’ devices, and irrigation protocols, in improving water use and turf cover outcomes.

Developing improved grazing and related practices to assist beef producters

This project will identify and evaluate grazing management and related practices for beef enterprises in northern Australia that will assist them to build resilience and adapt to a changing and more variable climate. With input from scientists and experienced producers, the trade-offs or synergies between production, sustainability and profitability indicators associated with different management practices will be evaluated in the target regions, using a bio-economic modelling framework. The latter will account for region-specific, climate-change outlooks.