Optimization of aeroponic technology for future integration in quality potato seed production systems in tropical environments

Virus and soil borne pathogens negatively impact on the production of potatoes in tropical highland and sub-tropical environments, limiting supply of an increasingly popular and important vegetable in these regions. It is common for latent disease infected seed tubers or field grown cuttings to be used as potato planting material. We utilised an International Potato Centre technique, using aeroponic technology, to produce low cost mini-tubers in tropical areas. The system has been optimised for increased effectiveness in tropical areas. High numbers of seed tubers of cultivar Sebago (630) and Nicola per m2 (>900) were obtained in the first generation, and the system is capable of producing five crops of standard cultivars in every two years. Initial results indicate that quality seed could be produced by nurseries and farmers, therefore contributing to the minimisation of soil borne diseases in an integrated management plan. This technology reduces seed production costs, benefiting seed and potato growers. © ISHS.

Dynamics of plant populations in Heteropogon contortus(black speargrass) pastures on a granite landscape in southern Queensland. 2. Seed production and soil seed banks of H. contortus

Seed production and soil seed hanks of H. contortus were studied in a subset of treatments within an extensive grazing study conducted in H. contortus pasture in southern Queensland between 1990 and 1996. Seed production of H. contortus in autumn ranged from 260 to 1800 seeds/m2 with much of this variation due to differences in rainfall between years. Seed production was generally higher in the silver-leaved ironbark than in the narrow-leaved ironbark land class and was also influenced by a consistent stocking rate x pasture type interaction. Inflorescence density was the main factor contributing to the variable seed production and was related to the rainfall received during February. The number of seeds per inflorescence was unaffected by seasonal rainfall, landscape position, stocking rate or legume oversowing. Seed viability was related to the rainfall received during March. Soil seed banks in spring varied from 130 to 520 seeds/m2 between 1990 and 1995 with generally more seed present in the silver-leaved ironbark than in the narrow-leaved ironbark land class. There were poor relationships between viable seed production and the size of the soil seed bank, and between the size of the soil seed bank and seedling recruitment. This study indicates that H. contortus has the potential to produce relatively large amounts of seed and showed that the seasonal pattern of rainfall plays a major role in achieving this potential

Effects of severity of threshing damage on seed quality of Gatton panic Panicum maximum)

Different degrees of severity of threshing were imposed during combine-harvesting of seed of Gatton panic, a cultivar of Panicum maximum , to determine effects of degree of threshing damage on subsequent properties of seed. Threshing cylinder peripheral speeds and concave clearances covering the normal range employed commercially were varied experimentally in the harvest of 2 crops grown in north Queensland. Harvested seed was dried and cleaned, then stored under ambient conditions. The extent of physical damage was measured, and samples were tested at intervals for viability, germination, dormancy and seedling emergence from soil in a glasshouse and in the field over the 2 seasons following harvest. Physical damage increased as peripheral rotor speed rose and (though less markedly) as concave clearance was reduced. As the level of damage increased, viability was progressively reduced, life expectancy was shortened, and dormancy was broken. When the consequences were measured as seedling emergence from soil, the adverse effects on viability tended to cancel out the benefits of dormancy-breaking, leaving few net differences attributable to the degree of threshing severity. We concluded that there would be no value in trying to manipulate the quality of seed produced for normal commercial use through choice of cylinder settings, but that deliberate light or heavy threshing could benefit special-purpose seed, destined, respectively, for long-term storage or immediate use.

Selective herbicide strategies for use in Australian desmanthus seed crops

Grass and broad-leaved weeds can reduce both yields and product marketability of desmanthus (Desmanthus virgatus) seed crops, even when cultural control strategies are used. Selective herbicides might economically control these weeds, but, prior to this study, the few herbicides tolerated by desmanthus did not control key weed contaminants of desmanthus seed crops. In this study, the tolerance of desmanthus cv. Marc to 55 herbicides used for selective weed control in other leguminous crops was assessed in 1 pot trial and 3 Queensland field trials. One field trial assessed the tolerance of desmanthus seedlings to combinations of the most promising pre-emergent and post emergent herbicides. The pre-emergent herbicides, imazaquin, imazethapyr, pendimethalin, oryzalin and trifluralin, gave useful weed control with very little crop damage. The post-emergent herbicides, haloxyfop, clethodim, propyzamide, carbetamide and dalapon, were safe for controlling grass weeds in desmanthus. Selective post-emergence control of broad-leaved weeds was achieved using bentazone, bromoxynil and imazethapyr. One trial investigated salvaging second-year desmanthus crops from mature perennial weeds, and atrazine, terbacil and hexazinone showed some potential in this role. Overall, our results show that desmanthus tolerates herbicides which collectively control a wide range of weeds encountered in Queensland. These, in combination with cultural weed control strategies, should control most weeds in desmanthus seed crops.

Effect of microwave radiation on seed mortality of rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br.), parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorous L.) and bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypiifolia L.)

A trial was undertaken to evaluate the effect of microwaves on seed mortality of three weed species. Seeds of rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br.), parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorous L.) and bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypiifolia L.) were buried at six depths (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40 cm) in coarse sand maintained at one of two moisture levels, oven dry or wet (field capacity), and then subjected to one of five microwave radiation durations of (0, 2, 4, 8 and 16 min). Significant interactions between soil moisture level, microwave radiation duration, seed burial depth and species were detected for mortality of seeds of all three species. Maximum seed mortality of rubber vine (88%), parthenium (67%) and bellyache bush (94%) occurred in wet soil irradiated for 16 min. Maximum seed mortality of rubber vine and bellyache bush seeds occurred in seeds buried at 2.5 cm depth whereas that of parthenium occurred in seeds buried at 10 cm depth. Maximum soil temperatures of 114.1 and 87.5°C in dry and wet soil respectively occurred at 2.5 cm depth following 16 min irradiation. Irrespective of the greater soil temperatures recorded in dry soil, irradiating seeds in wet soil generally increased seed mortality 2.9-fold compared with dry soil. Moisture content of wet soil averaged 5.7% compared with 0.1% for dry soil. Results suggest that microwave radiation has the potential to kill seeds located in the soil seed bank. However, many factors, including weed species susceptibility, determine the effectiveness of microwave radiation on buried seeds. Microwave radiation may be an alternative to conventional methods at rapidly depleting soil seed banks in the field, particularly in relatively wet soils that contain long lived weed seeds.

Seed persistence in the field may be predicted by laboratory-controlled aging

Weed management is complicated by the presence of soil seed banks. The complexity of soil-seed interactions means that seed persistence in the field is often difficult to measure, let alone predict. Field trials, although accurate in their context, are time-consuming and expensive to conduct for individual species. Some ex situ techniques for estimating seed life expectancy have been proposed, but these fail to simulate the environmental complexity of the field. Also, it has been questioned whether techniques such as the controlled aging test (CAT) are useful indicators of field persistence. This study aimed to test the validity of the standard CAT (seed aging at 45 C and 60% relative humidity) in use at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K., for predicting field seed-persistence. Comparison of seed persistence and CAT data for 27 northwest European species suggested a significant positive correlation of 0.31. Subsequently, 13 species of emerging and common weeds of Queensland were assessed for their seed longevity using the CAT. The seed longevity data of these species in the CAT were linked with field seed-persistence data according to three broad seed-persistence categories: <1 yr, 1 to 3 yr, and >3 yr. We discuss the scope for using the CAT as a tool for rapid assignment of species to these categories. There is a need for further studies that compare predictions of seed persistence based on the CAT with seed persistence in the field for a larger range of species and environments.

Soil type does not affect seed ageing when soil water potential and temperature are controlled

To investigate the effects of soil type on seed persistence in a manner that controlled for location and climate variables, three weed species—Gomphocarpus physocarpus (swan plant), Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana (wild oat) and Ligustrum lucidum (broadleaf privet)—were buried for 21 months in three contrasting soils at a single location. Soil type had a significant effect on seed persistence and seedling vigour, but soil water content and temperature varied between soils due to differences in physical and chemical properties. Warmer, wetter conditions favoured shorter persistence. A laboratory-based test was developed to accelerate the rate of seed ageing within soils, using controlled superoptimal temperature and moisture conditions (the soil-specific accelerated ageing test, SSAAT). The SSAAT demonstrated that soil type per se did not influence seed longevity. Moreover, the order in which seeds aged was the same whether aged in the field or SSAAT, with L. lucidum being shortest-lived and A. sterilis being longest-lived of the three species.

Differing mechanisms of simple nitrile formation on glucosinolate degradation in Lepidium sativum and Nasturtium officinale seeds.

Glucosinolates are sulphur-containing glycosides found in brassicaceous plants that can be hydrolysed enzymatically by plant myrosinase or non-enzymatically to form primarily isothiocyanates and/or simple nitriles. From a human health perspective, isothiocyanates are quite important because they are major inducers of carcinogen-detoxifying enzymes. Two of the most potent inducers are benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) present in garden cress (Lepidium sativum), and phenylethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) present in watercress (Nasturtium officinale). Previous studies on these salad crops have indicated that significant amounts of simple nitriles are produced at the expense of the isothiocyanates. These studies also suggested that nitrile formation may occur by different pathways: (1) under the control of specifier protein in garden cress and (2) by an unspecified, non-enzymatic path in watercress. In an effort to understand more about the mechanisms involved in simple nitrile formation in these species, we analysed their seeds for specifier protein and myrosinase activities, endogenous iron content and glucosinolate degradation products after addition of different iron species, specific chelators and various heat treatments. We confirmed that simple nitrile formation was predominantly under specifier protein control (thiocyanate-forming protein) in garden cress seeds. Limited thermal degradation of the major glucosinolate, glucotropaeolin (benzyl glucosinolate), occurred when seed material was heated to >120 degrees C. In the watercress seeds, however, we show for the first time that gluconasturtiin (phenylethyl glucosinolate) undergoes a non-enzymatic, iron-dependent degradation to a simple nitrile. On heating the seeds to 120 degrees C or greater, thermal degradation of this heat-labile glucosinolate increased simple nitrile levels many fold.

Emergence and seed persistence of Echinochloa colona, Urochloa panicoides and Hibiscus trionum in the sub-tropical environment of north-eastern Australia.

Better understanding of seed-bank dynamics of Echinochloa colona, Urochloa panicoides and Hibiscus trionum, major crop weeds in sub-tropical Australia, was needed to improve weed control. Emergence patterns and seed persistence were investigated, with viable seeds sown at different depths in large in-ground pots. Seedlings of all species emerged between October and March when mean soil temperatures were 21-23C. However, E. colona emerged as a series of flushes predominantly in the first year, with most seedlings emerging from 0-2 cm. Urochloa panicoides emerged mostly as a single large flush in the first two years, with most seedlings emerging from 5 cm. Hibiscus trionum emerged as a series of flushes over three seasons, initially with majority from 5 cm and then 0-2 cm in the later seasons. Longevity of the grass seed was short, with <5% remaining after burial at 0-2 cm for 24 months. In contrast, 38% of H. trionum seeds remained viable after the same period. Persistence of all species increased significantly with burial depth. These data highlight that management strategies need to be tailored for each species, particularly relating to the need for monitoring, application times for control tactics, impact of tillage, and time needed to reduce the seed-bank to low numbers.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 1. Growth and development.

The pattern of growth and development of seed crops of stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis) was derived from measurements made on experimental and commercial crops in north Queensland. The three cultivars Cook, Endeavour, and Schofield differed appreciably only in the timetable of their development. Each had distinct successive phases of vegetative and reproductive development culminating in total annual seed production of 700-800 kg ha-1 from a healthy closed canopy, the main recorded cause of reduced production being the disease Botrytis sp. In a healthy crop of Cook, the peak quantity of standing seed represented almost 90 per cent of the total accountable seed, and the rise to and decline from this peak proceeded at rates of the order of 3-4 per cent per day. It is deduced that, although there appears to be little potential for either increase in overall production or improvement in synchronization or retention characteristics beyond that currently attained by a closed canopy of healthy plants, there is scope for an increase in the efficiency of recovery of standing seed. Maximum recovery will be achieved through attention to choice of time of harvest, presentation of a minimum amount of extraneous vegetation to the harvester, and improvement in harvester separation.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 2. The consequences of defoliation.

The consequences of defoliation on seed production of stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis) were examined in field experiments at Walkamin in north Queensland. The practical aim of defoliation is to present a level uncompacted crop canopy to the harvester without a reduction in the quantity of seed carried at harvest ripeness. It was concluded that the latest date at which defoliation is reasonably certain to achieve its objectives is about four weeks before first flower initiation. In north Queensland, this means late February for cvv. Cook and Endeavour and early April for cv. Schofield. The results suggest that development of the population of individual shoots must be synchronized to produce the highest peaks of standing seed; that this is best achieved by ensuring that a closed crop canopy with a ceiling shoot population exists at the time of first flower initiation; and that poorly synchronized shoot development is a consequence of defoliating too late and a cause of reduced seed production.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 3. Effects of pre-harvest desiccation.

Strips within commercial crops of Stylosanthes guyanensis in the Mareeba district of north Queensland were sprayed with diquat 4, 6 and 10 days before harvest and compared with unsprayed strips. Pre-harvest desiccation made combine harvesting easier, but did not increase harvest yield. Where seed formation and maturation was still possible, desiccation prevented this without substantially increasing the loss of seed to the ground; increased harvest efficiency was thus offset by a diminished quantity of standing seed. However, where there was little or no further potential for seed development, diquat had virtually no effect on the quantity of standing seed or harvest efficiency. It was concluded that the results warranted neither recommendation nor further evaluation of preharvest desiccation of S. guyanensis seed crops.

Effects of stage of defoliation on seed production and growth of Stylosanthes humilis.

Stylosanthes humilis swards grown at Brisbane in irrigated boxes were defoliated (about 60 per cent removal of tops) at floral initiation, first flower appearance, or advanced flowering stages ; seed yield was 45, 16, and 14 per cent respectively of seed yield in undefoliated swards. Decreased yields were primarily due to poor seed set of florets, were also associated with reduced inflorescence density and floret number per inflorescence, and occurred despite increases (in some defoliation treatments) in seed size, leaf growth rate, and differentiation of leaves and branches. Total seasonal plant growth was independent of defoliation treatment.

Innovative management of herbicide resistant weeds - seed banks and soil biology

The project will evaluate seed bank depletion of key northern herbicide resistant weeds under different environments, cropping systems, crop agronomies and non-chemical control tactics. The project will also evaluate soil biology and seed bank relationships to explain differences in seed bank persistence.