Functional dynamics of the nitrogen balance of sorghum. II. Grain filling period.

Maintenance of green leaf area during grain filling can increase grain yield of sorghum grown under terminal water limitation. This 'stay-green' trait has been related to the nitrogen (N) supply-demand balance during grain filling. This study quantifies the N demand of grain and N translocation rates from leaves and stem and explores effects of genotype and N stress on onset and rate of leaf senescence during the grain filling period. Three hybrids differing in potential height were grown at three levels of N supply under well-watered conditions. Vertical profiles of biomass, leaf area, and N% of leaves, stem and grain were measured at regular intervals. Weekly SPAD chlorophyll readings on main shoot leaves were correlated with observed specific leaf nitrogen (SLN) to derive seasonal patterns of leaf N content. For all hybrids, individual grain N demand was sink determined and was initially met through N translocation from the stem and rachis. Only if this was insufficient did leaf N translocation occur. Maximum N translocation rates from leaves and stem were dependent on their N status. However, the supply of N at canopy scale was also related to the amount of leaf area senescing at any one time. This supply-demand framework for N dynamics explained effects of N stress and genotype on the onset and rate of leaf senescence.

Domestication for Conservation of an Endangered Species: The Case of the Wollemi Pine

A small population of tall slender conifers was discovered in 1994 in a deep rainforest canyon of the Wollemi National Park, New SouthWales, Australia. The living trees closely resembled fossils that were more than 65 million years old, and this ‘living fossil’ was recognised as a third extant genus in the Araucariaceae (Araucaria, Agathis and now Wollemia). The species was named the Wollemi pine (W. nobilis). Extensive searches uncovered very few populations, with the total number of adult trees being less than 100. Ex situ collections were quickly established in Sydney as part of the Wollemi Pine Recovery Plan. The majority of the ex situ population was later transferred to our custom-built facility in Queensland for commercial multiplication. Domestication has relied very heavily on the species’ amenability to vegetative propagation because seed collection from the natural populations is dangerous, expensive, and undesirable for conservation reasons. Early propagation success was poor, with only about 25% of cuttings producing roots. However, small increases in propagation success have a very large impact on a domestication program because plant production can be modelled on an exponential curve where each rooted cutting develops into a mother plant that, in turn, provides more rooted cuttings. An extensive research program elevated rooting percentages to greater than 80% and also provided in vitro methods for plant multiplication. These successes have enabled international release of the Wollemi pine as a new and attractive species for ornamental horticulture.

Improved understanding of the damage, ecology, and management of mirids and stinkbugs in Bollgard II

In recent years mirids and stinkbugs have emerged as important sucking pests in cotton. While stinkbugs are causing damage to bolls, mirids are causing damage to seedlings, squares and bolls. With the increasing adoption of Bollgard II and IPM approaches the use of broad-spectrum chemicals to kill Helicoverpa has been reduced and as a result mirids and stinkbugs are building to levels causing damage to bolls later in crop growth stages. Studies on stinkbugs by Dr Moazzem Khan revealed that green vegetable bug (GVB) caused significant boll damage and yield loss. A preliminary study by Dr Khan on mirids revealed that high mirid numbers at later growth stages also caused significant boll damage and that damage caused by mirids and GVB were similar. Mirids and stinkbugs therefore demand greater attention in order to minimise losses caused by these pests and to develop IPM strategies against these pests to enhance gains in IPM that have been made with Bt-transgenic cotton. Progress in this area of research will maintain sustainability and profitability of the Australian cotton industry. Mirid damage at early growth stages of cotton (up to squaring stage) has been studied in detail by Dr Khan. He found that all ages of mirids cause damage to young plants and damage by mirid nymphs is cumulative. Maximum damage occurs when the insect reaches the 4th and 5th nymphal stages. He also found that mirid feeding causes shedding of small and medium squares, and damaged large squares develop as ‘parrot beak’ bolls. Detailed studies at the boll stage, such as which stage of mirids is most damaging or which age boll is most vulnerable to feeding, is lacking. This information is a prerequisite to developing an IPM strategy for the pest in later crop growth stages. Understanding population change of the pest over time in relation to crop development is an important aspect for developing management strategies for the pest which is lacking for mirids in BollgardII. Predators and parasitoids are integral components of any IPM system and play an important part in regulating pest populations. Some generalist predators such as ants, spiders, damsel bugs and assassin bugs are known to predate on mirids. Nothing is known about parasitoids of mirids. Since green mirid (GM), Creontiades dilutus, is indigenous to Australia it is likely that we have one or more parasitoids of this mirid in Australia, but that possibility has not been investigated yet. The impact of the GVB adult parasitoid, Trichopoda giacomelli, has been studied by Dr Khan who found that the fly is established in the released areas and continues to spread. However, to get wider and greater impact, the fly should be released in new locations across the valleys. The insecticides registered for mirids and stinkbugs are mostly non-selective and are extremely disruptive to a wide range of beneficial insects. Use of these insecticides at stage I and II will minimise the impact of existing IPM programs. Therefore less disruptive control tactics including soft chemicals for mirids and stinkbugs are necessary. As with soft chemicals, salt mixtures, biopesticides based on fungal pathogens and attractants based on plant volatiles may be useful tools in managing mirids and stinkbugs with less or no disruption. Dr Khan has investigated salt mixture against mirids and GVB. While salt mixtures are quite effective and less disruptive, they are quite chemical specific. Not all chemicals mixed with salt will give the desired benefit. Therefore further investigation is needed to identify those chemicals that are effective with salt mixture against mirids and 3 of 37 GVB. Dr Caroline Hauxwell of DPI&F is working on fungal pathogen-based biopesticides against mirids and GVB and Drs Peter Gregg and Alice Del Socorro of Australian Cotton CRC are working on plant volatile-based attractants against mirids. Depending on their findings, inclusion of fungal-based biopestcides and plant volatile-based attractants in developing a management system against mirids and stinkbugs in cotton could be an important component of an IPM approach.

Genetic diversity of the Australian National Mango Genebank

Assessment of genetic diversity is an essential component in germplasm characterisation and utilisation. In this study the genetic diversity of mango was determined among 254 Mangifera indica L. accessions and related Mangifera species originating from 12 diverse geographic areas using eleven known simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers from mango. A total of 133 alleles were detected, ranging from eight (LMMA12) to 16 (MIAC-5) alleles per locus with a mean value of 12.36 and an average polymorphism information content (PLC) of 0.72. The mean number of alleles (8.45) was highest in the South East Asian accessions (Indonesia/Malesia) and lowest in the accessions from the Philippines (2.55). Diversity analysis divided the accessions into four major nodes broadly representing their geographical origins. The genetic diversity of 'Kensington Pride' was confirmed as being very low and no parents for this cultivar were identified. No association could be established between SSR markers analysed and embryony. Ten synonymous accessions were identified with matching genetic identity with at least one other accession at all SSR loci examined. Twenty-two unique genotypes were identified for 50 trees previously assigned different accession names. The remaining accessions were genetically distinct from each other. This increased understanding of genetic diversity in the Australian National Mango Genebank will assist breeders to better select parents with the potential to contribute desired genes to the progeny and thus more rapidly deliver improved cultivars to industry to meet consumer demand. Crown Copyright (C) 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

IPM in the transgenic era: a review of the challenges from emerging pests in Australian cotton systems

The Cotton Catchment Communities Cooperative Research Centre began during a period of rapid uptake of Bollgard II® cotton, which contains genes to express two Bt proteins that control the primary pests of cotton in Australia, Helicoverpa armigera and H. punctigera. The dramatic uptake of this technology presumably resulted in strong selection pressure for resistance in Helicoverpa spp. against the Bt proteins. The discovery of higher than expected levels of resistance in both species against one of the proteins in Bollgard II® cotton (Cry2Ab) led to significant re-evaluation of the resistance management plan developed for this technology, which was a core area of research for the Cotton CRC. The uptake of Bollgard II® cotton also led to a substantial decline in pesticide applications against Helicoverpa spp. (from 10–14 to 0–3 applications per season). The low spray environment allowed some pests not controlled by the Bt proteins to emerge as more significant pests, especially sucking species such as Creontiades dilutus and Nezara viridula. A range of other minor pests have also sporadically arisen as problems. Lack of knowledge and experience with these pests created uncertainty and encouraged insecticide use, which threatened to undermine the gains made with Bollgard II® cotton. Here we chronicle the achievements of the Cotton CRC in providing the industry with new knowledge and management strategies for these pests.