A generic method of engagement to elicit regional coastal management options

Stakeholder engagement is important for successful management of natural resources, both to make effective decisions and to obtain support. However, in the context of coastal management, questions remain unanswered on how to effectively link decisions made at the catchment level with objectives for marine biodiversity and fisheries productivity. Moreover, there is much uncertainty on how to best elicit community input in a rigorous manner that supports management decisions. A decision support process is described that uses the adaptive management loop as its basis to elicit management objectives, priorities and management options using two case studies in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The approach described is then generalised for international interest. A hierarchical engagement model of local stakeholders, regional and senior managers is used. The result is a semi-quantitative generic elicitation framework that ultimately provides a prioritised list of management options in the context of clearly articulated management objectives that has widespread application for coastal communities worldwide. The case studies show that demand for local input and regional management is high, but local influences affect the relative success of both engagement processes and uptake by managers. Differences between case study outcomes highlight the importance of discussing objectives prior to suggesting management actions, and avoiding or minimising conflicts at the early stages of the process. Strong contributors to success are a) the provision of local information to the community group, and b) the early inclusion of senior managers and influencers in the group to ensure the intellectual and time investment is not compromised at the final stages of the process. The project has uncovered a conundrum in the significant gap between the way managers perceive their management actions and outcomes, and community's perception of the effectiveness (and wisdom) of these same management actions.

A generic method of engagement to elicit regional coastal management options

Stakeholder engagement is important for successful management of natural resources, both to make effective decisions and to obtain support. However, in the context of coastal management, questions remain unanswered on how to effectively link decisions made at the catchment level with objectives for marine biodiversity and fisheries productivity. Moreover, there is much uncertainty on how to best elicit community input in a rigorous manner that supports management decisions. A decision support process is described that uses the adaptive management loop as its basis to elicit management objectives, priorities and management options using two case studies in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The approach described is then generalised for international interest. A hierarchical engagement model of local stakeholders, regional and senior managers is used. The result is a semi-quantitative generic elicitation framework that ultimately provides a prioritised list of management options in the context of clearly articulated management objectives that has widespread application for coastal communities worldwide. The case studies show that demand for local input and regional management is high, but local influences affect the relative success of both engagement processes and uptake by managers. Differences between case study outcomes highlight the importance of discussing objectives prior to suggesting management actions, and avoiding or minimising conflicts at the early stages of the process. Strong contributors to success are a) the provision of local information to the community group, and b) the early inclusion of senior managers and influencers in the group to ensure the intellectual and time investment is not compromised at the final stages of the process. The project has uncovered a conundrum in the significant gap between the way managers perceive their management actions and outcomes, and community's perception of the effectiveness (and wisdom) of these same management actions.

Demonstration reaches: Looking back whilst moving forward with river rehabilitation under the Native Fish Strategy

‘Demonstration reaches’ are sections of river where multiple threats to native fish are addressed through river rehabilitation and strong community participation. They are an important way of promoting the key driving actions of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority's Native Fish Strategy (NFS) by using on-ground community-driven rehabilitation. Measuring rehabilitation success against well-defined targets and using this information to adaptively mange activities is fundamental to the demonstration reach philosophy. Seven years on from the establishment of the first demonstration reach, there are now seven throughout the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), all in differing states of maturation and but all applying a standardised framework for monitoring native fish outcomes. In this study, we reflect on the role that demonstration reaches have played within the NFS, synthesise some key findings from 32 monitoring and evaluation outputs, and highlight some of the successes and barriers to success. We make recommendations as to how to strengthen the demonstration reach model to ensure it remains a relevant approach for fish habitat rehabilitation beyond the NFS and MDB.

Comparison of compost and a sandy loam as turf underlay materials on salt-affected parkland

Turfgrasses range from extremely salt sensitive to highly salt tolerant. However, the selection of a salt tolerant turf is not a 'silver bullet' solution to successful turf growth on salt-affected parklands. Interactions between factors such as cultivar, construction practices, establishment, and maintenance can be complex and should not be considered in isolation of one another. Taking this holistic approach, a study investigating cultivar evaluation for salt-affected sites also included a comparison of topsoil materials as turf underlay, as well as pre-treatment of the sod. The turf species and cultivars used in the study were: Cynodon dactylon, cultivar 'Oz Tuff (I) '; Paspalum vaginatum, cultivars 'Sea Isle 1 (I) ' and 'Velvetene (I) '; Zoysia matrella cultivar 'A-1 (I) '; and Zoysia japonica, cultivar 'Empire (I) '. The two underlay materials were compost (100%) or a sandy clay topsoil each applied above a coastal sand profile to a depth of 10 cm. Rooting depth or root dry weight did not significantly differ among turf cultivars. Compost profile treatment had significantly greater root mass than the topsoil among all turf cultivars. This higher root production was reflected by improved quality of all turf at the final evaluation. Turfgrass grown on compost had a higher normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), regardless of whether full sod or bare-rooted turfgrass was used. The use of a quality underlay was paramount to the successful growth of the turf cultivars investigated. While each cultivar had superior performance in sub-optimal conditions, the key to success was the selection of the right species and cultivar for each situation combined with proper establishment and maintenance of each turf grass.

Increasing the productivity of avocado orchards using high-density plantings: A review

There is strong interest in the use of high-density plantings to increase the productivity of avocado (Persea americana) orchards. Close plantings have the potential for higher yields and returns than standard or traditional plantings, especially in the early years of production. The success of this technology is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth and maximise light interception as the trees begin to bear fruit. We reviewed the performance of high-density orchards in different environments, and the success of efforts to control the growth of the trees through the use of dwarfing material, canopy management and growth regulators. Close plantings generally produce higher yields in the first few years of bearing compared with the yields of standard plantings. However, in most growing areas, the trees in the close plantings soon begin to crowd each other and yields decline. This usually occurs despite efforts to control shoot growth by pruning the trees or by applying growth regulators. Efforts to breed dwarfing rootstocks that can control the growth of mature trees have been largely unsuccessful. In the absence of dwarfing material, effective canopy management appears to be the largest barrier to success of high-density orchards. Further research on the use of different pruning strategies and growth regulators to control the growth of the trees and maximise light interception is required. There are potential problems with some of the growth regulators persisting in the harvested fruit and soil under certain circumstances.

Lantana: current management status and future prospects.

Lantana camara L. is a significant weed of which there are some 650 varieties in over 60 countries or island groups. It has been the focus of biological control attempts for a century, yet still poses major problems in many regions. Lantana has a significant impact on economic and environmental areas and is difficult to control. The key to good management of lantana is constant vigilance. Repeated control of new regrowth is critical to success. Control of new infestations should be a priority because the species is able to expand its range during good seasons, but does not die out during poor conditions. This book is a resource for land managers and researchers on methods of lantana control, particularly biocontrol.

A new data source for fisheries resource assessment: genetic estimates of the effective number of spawners. Final Report to the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation.

The development of innovative methods of stock assessment is a priority for State and Commonwealth fisheries agencies. It is driven by the need to facilitate sustainable exploitation of naturally occurring fisheries resources for the current and future economic, social and environmental well being of Australia. This project was initiated in this context and took advantage of considerable recent achievements in genomics that are shaping our comprehension of the DNA of humans and animals. The basic idea behind this project was that genetic estimates of effective population size, which can be made from empirical measurements of genetic drift, were equivalent to estimates of the successful number of spawners that is an important parameter in process of fisheries stock assessment. The broad objectives of this study were to 1. Critically evaluate a variety of mathematical methods of calculating effective spawner numbers (Ne) by a. conducting comprehensive computer simulations, and by b. analysis of empirical data collected from the Moreton Bay population of tiger prawns (P. esculentus). 2. Lay the groundwork for the application of the technology in the northern prawn fishery (NPF). 3. Produce software for the calculation of Ne, and to make it widely available. The project pulled together a range of mathematical models for estimating current effective population size from diverse sources. Some of them had been recently implemented with the latest statistical methods (eg. Bayesian framework Berthier, Beaumont et al. 2002), while others had lower profiles (eg. Pudovkin, Zaykin et al. 1996; Rousset and Raymond 1995). Computer code and later software with a user-friendly interface (NeEstimator) was produced to implement the methods. This was used as a basis for simulation experiments to evaluate the performance of the methods with an individual-based model of a prawn population. Following the guidelines suggested by computer simulations, the tiger prawn population in Moreton Bay (south-east Queensland) was sampled for genetic analysis with eight microsatellite loci in three successive spring spawning seasons in 2001, 2002 and 2003. As predicted by the simulations, the estimates had non-infinite upper confidence limits, which is a major achievement for the application of the method to a naturally-occurring, short generation, highly fecund invertebrate species. The genetic estimate of the number of successful spawners was around 1000 individuals in two consecutive years. This contrasts with about 500,000 prawns participating in spawning. It is not possible to distinguish successful from non-successful spawners so we suggest a high level of protection for the entire spawning population. We interpret the difference in numbers between successful and non-successful spawners as a large variation in the number of offspring per family that survive – a large number of families have no surviving offspring, while a few have a large number. We explored various ways in which Ne can be useful in fisheries management. It can be a surrogate for spawning population size, assuming the ratio between Ne and spawning population size has been previously calculated for that species. Alternatively, it can be a surrogate for recruitment, again assuming that the ratio between Ne and recruitment has been previously determined. The number of species that can be analysed in this way, however, is likely to be small because of species-specific life history requirements that need to be satisfied for accuracy. The most universal approach would be to integrate Ne with spawning stock-recruitment models, so that these models are more accurate when applied to fisheries populations. A pathway to achieve this was established in this project, which we predict will significantly improve fisheries sustainability in the future. Regardless of the success of integrating Ne into spawning stock-recruitment models, Ne could be used as a fisheries monitoring tool. Declines in spawning stock size or increases in natural or harvest mortality would be reflected by a decline in Ne. This would be good for data-poor fisheries and provides fishery independent information, however, we suggest a species-by-species approach. Some species may be too numerous or experiencing too much migration for the method to work. During the project two important theoretical studies of the simultaneous estimation of effective population size and migration were published (Vitalis and Couvet 2001b; Wang and Whitlock 2003). These methods, combined with collection of preliminary genetic data from the tiger prawn population in southern Gulf of Carpentaria population and a computer simulation study that evaluated the effect of differing reproductive strategies on genetic estimates, suggest that this technology could make an important contribution to the stock assessment process in the northern prawn fishery (NPF). Advances in the genomics world are rapid and already a cheaper, more reliable substitute for microsatellite loci in this technology is available. Digital data from single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are likely to super cede ‘analogue’ microsatellite data, making it cheaper and easier to apply the method to species with large population sizes.

A lesson from cyclone Larry: An untold story of the success of good coastal planning

When tropical cyclone Larry crossed the Queensland coast on 20 March 2006, commercial, recreational and naval vessels in the port of Cairns, 60 km north of the eye of the cyclone and others closer to the eye, were protected from the destructive winds by sheltering in deep mangrove creeks in Trinity Inlet and off other coastal rivers. The Trinity Inlet mangroves are protected under the comprehensive multi-use Trinity Inlet Management Plan, agreed by the local and state government agencies (Cairns City Council, the Cairns Port Authority and the Queensland Government). Using this Australian example and one from the town of Palompon in Leyte province, central Philippines, we show how long-term mangrove habitat protection resulting from well-conceived coastal planning can deliver important economic and infrastructure benefits.

Effect of DNA extraction on ageing success in coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) otoliths

To maximize the information commonly collected from otoliths, the effect of DNA extraction on the estimation of age with otoliths was evaluated by comparing sagittal otolith samples from common coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) for clarity and ageing discrepancies in DNA-extracted and untreated control otoliths. The DNA extraction process had no significant effect, indicating that archived otoliths can be used as a source of DNA while retaining their utility for age estimation.

Black Sigatoka disease: new technologies to strengthen eradication strategies in Australia

In 2001, an incursion of Mycosphaerella fijiensis, the causal agent of black Sigatoka, was detected in Australia's largest commercial banana growing region, the Tully Banana Production Area in North Queensland. An intensive surveillance and eradication campaign was undertaken which resulted in the reinstatement of the disease-free status for black Sigatoka in 2005. This was the first time black Sigatoka had ever been eradicated from commercial plantations. The success of the eradication campaign was testament to good working relationships between scientists, growers, crop monitors, quarantine regulatory bodies and industry. A key contributing factor to the success was the deployment of a PCR-based molecular diagnostic assay, developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Plant Protection (CRCTPP). This assay complemented morphological identification and allowed high throughput diagnosis of samples facilitating rapid decision-making during the eradication campaign. This paper describes the development and successful deployment of molecular diagnostics for black Sigatoka. Shortcomings in the gel-based assay are discussed and the advantages of highly specific real-time PCR assays, capable of differentiating between Mycosphaerella fijiensis, Mycosphaerella musicola and Mycosphaerella eumusae are outlined. Real-time assays may provide a powerful diagnostic tool for applications in surveillance, disease forecasting and resistance testing for Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.

Resistance to insect growth regulator insecticides in populations of sheep lice as assessed by a moulting disruption assay

Low-volume, backline applications with the benzoylphenyl urea insecticides triflumuron and diflubenzuron represent in excess of 70% of treatments for the control of sheep lice, Bovicola ovis (Schrank) (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae), in Australia. Reports of reduced effectiveness from 2003 and subsequent controlled treatment trials suggested the emergence of resistance to these compounds in B. ovis populations. A laboratory assay based on the measurement of moulting success in nymphs was developed and used to assess susceptibility to diflubenzuron and triflumuron in louse populations collected from sheep where a control failure had occurred. These tests confirmed the development of resistance to triflumuron and diflubenzuron in at least two instances, with estimated resistance ratios of 67-94X at LC50.

Test of the enemy release hypothesis: the native magpie moth prefers a native fireweed (Senecio pinnatifolius) to its introduced congener (S. madagascariensis).

The enemy release hypothesis predicts that native herbivores will either prefer or cause more damage to native than introduced plant species. We tested this using preference and performance experiments in the laboratory and surveys of leaf damage caused by the magpie moth Nyctemera amica on a co-occuring native and introduced species of fireweed (Senecio) in eastern Australia. In the laboratory, ovipositing females and feeding larvae preferred the native S. pinnatifolius over the introduced S. madagascariensis. Larvae performed equally well on foliage of S. pinnatifolius and S. madagascariensis: pupal weights did not differ between insects reared on the two species, but growth rates were significantly faster on S. pinnatifolius. In the field, foliage damage was significantly greater on native S. pinnatifolius than introduced S. madagascariensis. These results support the enemy release hypothesis, and suggest that the failure of native consumers to switch to introduced species contributes to their invasive success. Both plant species experienced reduced, rather than increased, levels of herbivory when growing in mixed populations, as opposed to pure stands in the field; thus, there was no evidence that apparent competition occurred.

A systematic approach to biological control agent exploration and prioritisation for prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica ssp. indica)

Agent selection for prickly acacia has been largely dictated by logistics and host specificity. Given that detailed ecological information is available on this species in Australia, we propose that it is possible to select agents based on agent efficacy and desired impact on prickly acacia demography. We propose to use the 'plant genotype' and 'climatic' similarities as filters to identify areas for future agent exploration; and plant response to herbivory and field host range as 'predictive' filters for agent prioritisation. Adopting such a systematic method that incorporates knowledge from plant population ecology and plant-herbivore interactions makes agent selection decisions explicit and allow more rigorous evaluations of agent performance and better understanding of success and failure of agents in weed biological control.

Action learning in partnership with Landcare and catchment management groups to support increased pasture sowings in southern inland Queensland

The incorporation of sown pastures as short-term rotations into the cropping systems of northern Australia has been slow. The inherent chemical fertility and physical stability of the predominant vertisol soils across the region enabled farmers to grow crops for decades without nitrogen fertiliser, and precluded the evolution of a crop–pasture rotation culture. However, as less fertile and less physically stable soils were cropped for extended periods, farmers began to use contemporary farming and sown pasture technologies to rebuild and maintain their soils. This has typically involved sowing long-term grass and grass–legume pastures on the more marginal cropping soils of the region. In partnership with the catchment management authority, the Queensland Murray–Darling Committee (QMDC) and Landcare, a pasture extension process using the LeyGrain™ package was implemented in 2006 within two Grain & Graze projects in the Maranoa-Balonne and Border Rivers catchments in southern inland Queensland. The specific objectives were to increase the area sown to high quality pasture and to gain production and environmental benefits (particularly groundcover) through improving the skills of producers in pasture species selection, their understanding and management of risk during pasture establishment, and in managing pastures and the feed base better. The catalyst for increasing pasture sowings was a QMDC subsidy scheme for increasing groundcover on old cropping land. In recognising a need to enhance pasture knowledge and skills to implement this scheme, the QMDC and Landcare producer groups sought the involvement of, and set specific targets for, the LeyGrain workshop process. This is a highly interactive action learning process that built on the existing knowledge and skills of the producers. Thirty-four workshops were held with more than 200 producers in 26 existing groups and with private agronomists. An evaluation process assessed the impact of the workshops on the learning and skill development by participants, their commitment to practice change, and their future intent to sow pastures. The results across both project catchments were highly correlated. There was strong agreement by producers (>90%) that the workshops had improved knowledge and skills regarding the adaptation of pasture species to soils and climates, enabling a better selection at the paddock level. Additional strong impacts were in changing the attitudes of producers to all aspects of pasture establishment, and the relative species composition of mixtures. Producers made a strong commitment to practice change, particularly in managing pasture as a specialist crop at establishment to minimise risk, and in the better selection and management of improved pasture species (particularly legumes and the use of fertiliser). Producers have made a commitment to increase pasture sowings by 80% in the next 5 years, with fourteen producers in one group alone having committed to sow an additional 4893 ha of pasture in 2007–08 under the QMDC subsidy scheme. The success of the project was attributed to the partnership between QMDC and Landcare groups who set individual workshop targets with LeyGrain presenters, the interactive engagement processes within the workshops themselves, and the follow-up provided by the LeyGrain team for on-farm activities.

A scientific approach to agent selection

The prioritisation of potential agents on the basis of likely efficacy is an important step in biological control because it can increase the probability of a successful biocontrol program, and reduce risks and costs. In this introductory paper we define success in biological control, review how agent selection has been approached historically, and outline the approach to agent selection that underpins the structure of this special issue on agent selection. Developing criteria by which to judge the success of a biocontrol agent (or program) provides the basis for agent selection decisions. Criteria will depend on the weed, on the ecological and management context in which that weed occurs, and on the negative impacts that biocontrol is seeking to redress. Predicting which potential agents are most likely to be successful poses enormous scientific challenges. 'Rules of thumb', 'scoring systems' and various conceptual and quantitative modelling approaches have been proposed to aid agent selection. However, most attempts have met with limited success due to the diversity and complexity of the systems in question. This special issue presents a series of papers that deconstruct the question of agent choice with the aim of progressively improving the success rate of biological control. Specifically they ask: (i) what potential agents are available and what should we know about them? (ii) what type, timing and degree of damage is required to achieve success? and (iii) which potential agent will reach the necessary density, at the right time, to exert the required damage in the target environment?