Pasteurella multocida detection by 5' Taq nuclease assay: a new tool for use in diagnosing fowl cholera

A 5′ Taq nuclease assay utilising minor groove binder technology and targeting the 16S rRNA gene was designed to detect Pasteurella multocida (the causative agent of fowl cholera) in swabs collected from poultry. The assay was first evaluated using pure cultures. The assay correctly identified four P. multocida taxonomic type strains, 18 P. multocida serovar reference strains and 40 Australian field isolates (17 from poultry, 11 from pigs and 12 from cattle). Representatives of nine other Pasteurella species, 26 other bacterial species (18 being members of the family Pasteurellaceae) and four poultry virus isolates did not react in the assay. The assay detected a minimum of approximately 10 cfu of P. multocida per reaction. Of 79 poultry swabs submitted to the laboratory for routine bacteriological culture, 17 were positive in the 5′ Taq nuclease assay, but only 10 were positive by culture. The other 62 swabs were negative for P. multocida by both 5′ Taq nuclease assay and culture. The assay is suitable for use in diagnosing fowl cholera, is more rapid than bacteriological culture, and may also have application in diagnosing P. multocida infections in cattle and pigs.

Validation of a Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Detection of Babesia bigemina Antibodies in Cattle

A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) based on a broadly conserved, species-specific, B-cell epitope within the C terminus of Babesia bigemina rhoptry-associated protein 1a was validated for international use. Receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed 16% inhibition as the threshold for a negative result, with an associated specificity of 98.3% and sensitivity of 94.7%. Increasing the threshold to 21% increased the specificity to 100% but modestly decreased the sensitivity to 87.2%. By using 21% inhibition, the positive predictive values ranged from 90.7% (10% prevalence) to 100% (95% prevalence) and the negative predictive values ranged from 97.0% (10% prevalence) to 48.2% (95% prevalence). The assay was able to detect serum antibody as early as 7 days after intravenous inoculation. The cELISA was distributed to five different laboratories along with a reference set of 100 defined bovine serum samples, including known positive, known negative, and field samples. The pairwise concordance among the five laboratories ranged from 100% to 97%, and all kappa values were above 0.8, indicating a high degree of reliability. Overall, the cELISA appears to have the attributes necessary for international application.

A comparison of a blocking ELISA and a haemagglutination inhibition assay for the detection of antibodies to Avibacterium (Haemophilus) paragallinarum in sera from artificially infected chickens

The ability of blocking ELISAs and haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) tests to detect antibodies in sera from chickens challenged with either Avibacterium (Haemophilus) paragallinarum isolate Hp8 (serovar A) or H668 (serovar C) was compared. Serum samples were examined weekly over the 9 weeks following infection. The results showed that the positive rate of serovar A specific antibody in the B-ELISA remained at 100% from the second week to the ninth week. In chickens given the serovar C challenge, the highest positive rate of serovar C specific antibody in the B-ELISA appeared at the seventh week (60% positive) and was then followed by a rapid decrease. The B-ELISA gave significantly more positives at weeks 2, 3, 7, 8 and 9 post-infection for serovar A and at week 7 post-infection for serovar C. In qualitative terms, for both serovar A and serovar C infections, the HI tests gave a lower percentage of positive sera at all time points except at 9 weeks post-infection with serovar C. The highest positive rate for serovar A HI antibodies was 70% of sera at the fourth and fifth weeks post-infection. The highest rate of serovar C HI antibodies was 20% at the fifth and sixth weeks post-infection. The results have provided further evidence of the suitability of the serovar A and C B-ELISAs for the diagnosis of infectious coryza.

The influence of animal mobility on the assumption of uniform distances in aerial line-transect surveys

Line-transect distance sampling is a widely used method for estimating animal density from aerial surveys. Analysis of line-transect distance data usually relies on a requirement that the statistical distribution of distances of animal groups from the transect line is uniform. We show that this requirement is satisfied by the survey design if all other assumptions of distance sampling hold, but it can be violated by consistent survey problems such as responsive movement of the animals towards or away from the observer. We hypothesise that problems with the uniform requirement are unlikely to be encountered for immobile taxa, but might become substantial for species of high mobility. We test evidence for non-uniformity using double-observer distance data from two aerial surveys of five species with a spectrum of mobility capabilities and tendencies. No clear evidence against uniformity was found for crabeater seals or emperor penguins on the pack-ice in East Antarctica, while minor non-uniformity consistent with responsive movement up to 30 m was found for Adelie penguins. Strong evidence of either non-uniformity or a failure of the capture-recapture validating method was found for eastern grey kangaroos and red kangaroos in Queensland.

Rapid and sensitive detection of Avibacterium paragallinarum in the presence of other bacteria using a 5' Taq nuclease assay: A new tool for diagnosing infectious coryza

A 5' Taq nuclease assay specific for Avibacterium paragallinarum was designed and optimized for use in diagnosing infectious coryza. The region chosen for assay design was one of known specificity for Av. paragallinarum. The assay detected Av. paragallinarum reference strains representing the three Page and the eight Kume serovars, and field isolates from diverse geographical locations. No cross-reactions were observed with other Avibacterium species, with other bacteria taxonomically related to Av. paragallinarum nor with bacteria and viruses likely to be present in swabs collected from suspected infectious coryza cases. The detection limit for the assay was 6 to 60 colony-forming units per reaction. Twenty-two out of 53 swabs collected from sick birds reacted in the 5' Taq nuclease assay, whereas Av. paragallinarum was not isolated from any of the swabs. All of the 22 swabs yielded other bacteria in culture. The presence of Av. paragallinarum in the swabs was also demonstrated by sequencing, thereby confirming the ability of the assay to detect Av. paragallinarum in the presence of other bacteria. The ability to quantify bacterial load in the swabs using the 5' Taq nuclease assay was demonstrated.

A PCR assay for gender assignment in dugong (Dugong dugon) and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus)

Gender assignment for some aquatic mammals in the field is difficult. Molecular sexing from tissue biopsies is possible as males are heterogametic. Here we describe a multiplex PCR assay that amplifies the male specific SRY gene and differentiates ZFX and ZFY gametologues in two sirenian species, dugong (Dugong dugon) and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus). The assay was validated with animals of known gender and proved accurate and robust to experimental failure.

Resistance to insect growth regulator insecticides in populations of sheep lice as assessed by a moulting disruption assay

Low-volume, backline applications with the benzoylphenyl urea insecticides triflumuron and diflubenzuron represent in excess of 70% of treatments for the control of sheep lice, Bovicola ovis (Schrank) (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae), in Australia. Reports of reduced effectiveness from 2003 and subsequent controlled treatment trials suggested the emergence of resistance to these compounds in B. ovis populations. A laboratory assay based on the measurement of moulting success in nymphs was developed and used to assess susceptibility to diflubenzuron and triflumuron in louse populations collected from sheep where a control failure had occurred. These tests confirmed the development of resistance to triflumuron and diflubenzuron in at least two instances, with estimated resistance ratios of 67-94X at LC50.

Comparison of Culture and a Novel 5' Taq Nuclease Assay for Direct Detection of Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis in Clinical Specimens from Cattle

A Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis-specific 5' Taq nuclease PCR assay using a 3' minor groove binder-DNA probe (TaqMan MGB) was developed based on a subspecies-specific fragment of unknown identity (S. Hum, K. Quinn, J. Brunner, and S. L. On, Aust. Vet. J. 75:827-831, 1997). The assay specifically detected four C. fetus subsp. venerealis strains with no observed cross-reaction with C. fetus subsp. fetus-related Campylobacter species or other bovine venereal microflora. The 5' Taq nuclease assay detected approximately one single cell compared to 100 and 10 cells in the conventional PCR assay and 2,500 and 25,000 cells from selective culture from inoculated smegma and mucus, respectively. The respective detection limits following the enrichments from smegma and mucus were 5,000 and 50 cells/inoculum for the conventional PCR compared to 500 and 50 cells/inoculum for the 5' Taq nuclease assay. Field sampling confirmed the sensitivity and the specificity of the 5' Taq nuclease assay by detecting an additional 40 bulls that were not detected by culture. Urine-inoculated samples demonstrated comparable detection of C. fetus subsp. venerealis by both culture and the 5' Taq nuclease assay; however, urine was found to be less effective than smegma for bull sampling. Three infected bulls were tested repetitively to compare sampling tools, and the bull rasper proved to be the most suitable, as evidenced by the improved ease of specimen collection and the consistent detection of higher levels of C. fetus subsp. venerealis. The 5' Taq nuclease assay demonstrates a statistically significant association with culture (2 = 29.8; P < 0.001) and significant improvements for the detection of C. fetus subsp. venerealis-infected animals from crude clinical extracts following prolonged transport.

Development of an immunomagnetic capture-reverse transcriptase-PCR assay for three pineapple ampeloviruses

A semi-automated, immunomagneticcapture-reverse transcription PCR(IMC-RT-PCR) assay for the detection of three pineapple-infecting ampeloviruses, Pineapple mealybug wilt-associated virus-1, -2 and -3, is described. The assay was equivalent in sensitivity but more rapid than conventional immunocapture RT-PCR. The assay can be used either as a one- or two-step RT-PCR and allows detection of the viruses separately or together in a triplex assay from fresh, frozen or freeze-dried pineapple leaf tissue. This IMC-RT-PCR assay could be used for high throughput screening of pineapple planting propagules and could easily be modified for the detection of other RNA viruses in a range of plant species, provided suitable antibodies are available.

A one-tube fluorescent assay for the quarantine detection and identification of Tilletia indica and other grass bunts in wheat

A molecular assay with enhanced specificity and sensitivity has been developed to assist in the surveillance of Karnal bunt, a quarantineable disease with a significant impact on international trade. The protocol involves the release of DNA from spores, PCR amplification to enrich Tilletia-specific templates from released DNA and a five-plex, real-time PCR assay to detect, identify and distinguish T. indica and other Tilletia species (T. walkeri, T. ehrhartae, T. horrida and a group comprising T. caries, T. laevis, T. contraversa, T. bromi and T. fusca) in wheat grains. This fluorescent molecular tool has a detection sensitivity of one spore and thus bypasses the germination step, which in the current protocol is required for confirmation when only a few spores have been found in grain samples. The assay contains five dual-labelled, species-specific probes and associated species-specific primer pairs in a PCR mix in one tube. The different amplification products are detected simultaneously by five different fluorescence spectra. This specific and sensitive assay with reduced labour and reagent requirements makes it an effective and economically sustainable tool to be used in a Karnal bunt surveillance program. This protocol will also be valuable for the identification of some contaminant Tilletia sp. in wheat grains.

An innovative microplate assay to facilitate the detection of antimicrobial activity in plant extracts.

A microplate assay was modified for the detection of antimicrobial activity in plant extracts. The aim was to develop an in vitro assay that could rapidly screen plant extracts to provide quantitative data on inhibition of microbial growth. A spectrophotometric assay using a microplate with serial dilutions of the plant extract and the bacteria was developed. Two bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, were used for this study. Essential oils, oregano (Origanum vulgare) and lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), and three active components carvacrol, thymol and citral were evaluated. The reproducibility of the assay was high, with correlation coefficients (r aureus and E. coli between 0.9321 and 0.9816. Similarly, r and 0.9814. This assay could also be used to measure antimicrobial activity in plant extracts which vary in pH and color.

Rapid multiplex PCR assay for differentiating Pasteurella multocida serovars

To test the robustness and validity of our prototype LPS-specific multiplex PCR on P. multocida field isolates and develop the PCR into a diagnostic test capable of accurately and reliably typing P. multocida strains.

Screening bacterial metabolites for inhibitory effects against Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis using a spectrophotometric assay

Certain bacteria present on frog skin can prevent infection by the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), conferring disease resistance. Previous studies have used agar-based in vitro challenge assays to screen bacteria for Bd-inhibitory activity and to identify candidates for bacterial supplementation trials. However, agar-based assays can be difficult to set up and to replicate reliably. To overcome these difficulties, we developed a semi-quantitative spectrophotometric challenge assay technique. Cell-free supernatants were prepared from filtered bacterial cultures and added to 96-well plates in replicated wells containing Bd zoospores suspended in tryptone-gelatin hydrolysate-lactose (TGhL) broth medium. Plates were then read daily on a spectrophotometer until positive controls reached maximum growth in order to determine growth curves for Bd. We tested the technique by screening skin bacteria from the Australian green-eyed tree frog Litoria serrata. Of bacteria tested, 31% showed some degree of Bd inhibition, while some may have promoted Bd growth, a previously unknown effect. Our cell-free supernatant challenge assay technique is an effective in vitro method for screening bacterial isolates for strong Bd-inhibitory activity. It contributes to the expanding field of bioaugmentation research, which could play a significant role in mitigating the effects of chytridiomycosis on amphibians around the world.

Strong resistance to phosphine in the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae): its characterisation, a rapid assay for diagnosis and its distribution in Australia

BACKGROUND: The recent development of very high resistance to phosphine in rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), seriously threatens stored-grain biosecurity. The aim was to characterise this resistance, to develop a rapid bioassay for its diagnosis to support pest management and to document the distribution of resistance in Australia in 20072011. RESULTS: Bioassays of purified laboratory reference strains and field-collected samples revealed three phenotypes: susceptible, weakly resistant and strongly resistant. With resistance factors of > 1000 x , resistance to phosphine expressed by the strong resistance phenotype was higher than reported for any stored-product insect species. The new time-to-knockdown assay rapidly and accurately diagnosed each resistance phenotype within 6 h. Although less frequent in western Australia, weak resistance was detected throughout all grain production regions. Strong resistance occurred predominantly in central storages in eastern Australia. CONCLUSION: Resistance to phosphine in the rusty grain beetle is expressed through two identifiable phenotypes: weak and strong. Strong resistance requires urgent changes to current fumigation dosages. The development of a rapid assay for diagnosis of resistance enables the provision of same-day advice to expedite resistance management decisions. (c) 2012 Commonwealth of Australia. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A simple, one-tube assay for the simultaneous detection and diagnosis of ten Australian poultry Eimeria

Coccidiosis is a costly worldwide enteric disease of chickens caused by parasites of the genus Eimeria. At present, there are seven described species that occur globally and a further three undescribed, operational taxonomic units (OTUs X, Y, and Z) that are known to infect chickens from Australia. Species of Eimeria have both overlapping morphology and pathology and frequently occur as mixed-species infections. This makes definitive diagnosis with currently available tests difficult and, to date, there is no test for the detection of the three OTUs. This paper describes the development of a PCR-based assay that is capable of detecting all ten species of Eimeria, including OTUs X, Y, and Z in field samples. The assay is based on a single set of generic primers that amplifies a single diagnostic fragment from the mitochondrial genome of each species. This one-tube assay is simple, low-cost, and has the capacity to be high throughput. It will therefore be of great benefit to the poultry industry for Eimeria detection and control, and the confirmation of identity and purity of vaccine strains.