Field assessment of the resistance of timber products to termite (Isoptera) damage: Results can change with the amount of bait wood

Whether or not termites initiate damage to timber via the end grain may determine the need for spot-treating the exposed untreated cut ends of envelope-treated softwood framing material. Australian Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) were field-tested for their ability to initiate feeding via the end grain of timber (35 × 90 mm) treated with a repellent Tanalith® T envelope. Specimens of commercial radiata pine Pinus radiata D.Don framing timber (untreated) and slash pine Pinus elliottii Englem. (untreated and envelope-treated) were partially clad in fine stainless steel mesh. Clad and unclad specimens were exposed to C. acinaciformis near Townsville, North Queensland, Australia, for four months. Results showed that this species of termite can indeed damage timber via the end grain, including exposed untreated cut ends of envelope-treated material as demonstrated earlier for different populations of C. acinaciformis. Differences between the test conditions in field trials carried out at different times (where C. acinaciformis either did or did not damage timber via the end grain) are discussed. Clearly, outcomes from field studies with preservative-treated materials are dependent upon experimental conditions. Notably, the amount of bait wood (highly termite-susceptible timber substrate) offered in a given method can strongly influence the termite response. Further investigation is required to standardise this aspect of conditions in protocols for the assessment of wood preservatives.

Seasonal resource availability and use by an endangered tropical mycophagous marsupial

This study highlights the importance of considering how seasonality of rainfall affects availability of resources and consequently species distributions within tropical ecosystems. The endangered northern bettong, Bettongia tropica Wakefield is thought to be restricted to habitats where seasonal availability of hypogeous fungi, their principal food resource, remains high. To test this hypothesis fungal abundance was quantified in the early wet, late wet, early dry and late dry seasons within known bettong habitat. A relationship was found between precipitation and fungal availability, with the abundance of hypogeous fungi being significantly lower in the late dry season. Fungal availability correlated strongly with the seasonal rainfall pattern determined from 74-year monthly means. This contrasts with a previous study where mycophagy, measured by faecal analysis, remained high across seasons presumably because of aseasonal rainfall during that study period. Alloteropsis semialata R.Br. (cockatoo grass) use by bettongs increased significantly during the period of low fungal availability. This suggests that the importance of cockatoo grass as an alternative food resource during annual and extended dry periods has previously been underestimated. With the frequency and intensity of drought expected to increase with global climate change, these findings have significant implications for bettong management. The important and possibly equivalent dependence of B. tropica on both hypogeous fungi and A. semialata helps to explain their habitat preference and identifies this species as a true ecotonal specialist.

Rice molecular breeding laboratories in the genomics era: Current status and future considerations

Using DNA markers in plant breeding with marker-assisted selection (MAS) could greatly improve the precision and efficiency of selection, leading to the accelerated development of new crop varieties. The numerous examples of MAS in rice have prompted many breeding institutes to establish molecular breeding labs. The last decade has produced an enormous amount of genomics research in rice, including the identification of thousands of QTLs for agronomically important traits, the generation of large amounts of gene expression data, and cloning and characterization of new genes, including the detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms. The pinnacle of genomics research has been the completion and annotation of genome sequences for indica and japonica rice. This information-coupled with the development of new genotyping methodologies and platforms, and the development of bioinformatics databases and software tools-provides even more exciting opportunities for rice molecular breeding in the 21st century. However, the great challenge for molecular breeders is to apply genomics data in actual breeding programs. Here, we review the current status of MAS in rice, current genomics projects and promising new genotyping methodologies, and evaluate the probable impact of genomics research. We also identify critical research areas to "bridge the application gap" between QTL identification and applied breeding that need to be addressed to realize the full potential of MAS, and propose ideas and guidelines for establishing rice molecular breeding labs in the postgenome sequence era to integrate molecular breeding within the context of overall rice breeding and research programs.

Borate protection of softwood from Coptotermes acinaciformis (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) damage: Variation in protection thresholds explained

Laboratory and field data reported in the literature are confusing with regard to “adequate” protection thresholds for borate timber preservatives. The confusion is compounded by differences in termite species, timber species and test methodology. Laboratory data indicate a borate retention of 0.5% mass/mass (m/m) boric acid equivalent (BAE) would cause >90% termite mortality and restrict mass loss in test specimens to ≤5%. Field data generally suggest that borate retentions appreciably >0.5% m/m BAE are required. We report two field experiments with varying amounts of untreated feeder material in which Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) responses to borate-treated radiata (Monterey) pine, Pinus radiata D. Don, were measured. The apparently conflicting results between laboratory and field data are explained by the presence or absence of untreated feeder material in the test environment. In the absence of untreated feeder material, wood containing 0.5% BAE provided adequate protection from Coptotermes sp., whereas in the presence of untreated feeder material, increased retentions were required. Furthermore, the retentions required increased with increased amounts of susceptible material present. Some termites, Nasutitermes sp. and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt, for example, are borate-tolerant and borate timber preservatives are not a viable management option with these species. The lack of uniform standards for termite test methodology and assessment criteria for efficacy across the world is recognized as a difficulty with research into the performance of timber preservatives with termites. The many variables in laboratory and field assays make “prescriptive” standards difficult to recommend. The use of “performance” standards to define efficacy criteria (“adequate” protection) is discussed.

Developments in termite management in Queensland, Australia: Life after Cyclodienes (Isoptera)

The highly persistent cyclodiene (organochlorine) insecticides (aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane and heptachlor), the main termiticides used in Australia for 30 years, were withdrawn from use in most of Australia on 30 June 1995. Alternative strategies for subterranean termite management in buildings and other structures had been under development, well before this withdrawal. Here we focus on these and subsequent developments in subterranean termite management, relevant to Queensland, including a national survey, relevant building regulations, approvals and changes in the Australian Standards on termite management. Developments including a national training and competency-based-licensing system for pest managers, insurance of dwellings against termite damage and several alternative termite management strategies are discussed. An integrated approach to termite management is the likely direction for the future in Australia, minimising reliance on chemical sprays and drenches. There will be an increased need for physical barriers in improved building design and reliable preventative and remedial treatments involving bait technology. The need for research on termite biology and, in particular, foraging behavior is emphasized yet again.

Diversity in the sunflower: Puccinia helianthi pathosystem in Australia

Sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi is the most important disease of sunflower in Australia with the potential to cause significant yield losses in susceptible hybrids. Rapid and frequent virulence changes in the rust fungus population limit the effective lifespan of commercial cultivars and impose constant pressure on breeding programs to identify and deploy new sources of resistance. This paper contains a synopsis of virulence data accumulated over 25 years, and more recent studies of genotypic diversity and sexual recombination. We have used this synopsis, generated from both published and unpublished data, to propose the origin, evolution and distribution of new pathotypes of P. helianthi. Virulence surveys revealed that diverse pathotypes of P. helianthi evolve in wild sunflower populations, most likely because sexual recombination and subsequent selection of recombinant pathotypes occurs there. Wild sunflower populations provide a continuum of genetically heterogeneous hosts on which P. helianthi can potentially complete its sexual cycle under suitable environmental conditions. Population genetics analysis of a worldwide collection of P. helianthi indicated that Australian isolates of the pathogen are more diverse than non-Australian isolates. Additionally, the presence of the same pathotype in different genotypic backgrounds supported evidence from virulence data that sexual recombination has occurred in the Australian population of P. helianthi at some time. A primary aim of the work described was to apply our knowledge of pathotype evolution to improve resistance in sunflower to sunflower rust. Molecular markers were identified for a number of previously uncharacterised sunflower rust R-genes. These markers have been used to detect resistance genes in breeding lines and wild sunflower germplasm. A number of virulence loci that do not recombine were identified in P. helianthi. The resistance gene combinations corresponding to these virulence loci are currently being introgressed with breeding lines to generate hybrids with durable resistance to sunflower rust.

Temporal variation in arthropod sampling effectiveness: The case for using the beat sheet method in cotton

Predatory insects and spiders are key elements of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes in agricultural crops such as cotton. Management decisions in IPM programmes should to be based on a reliable and efficient method for counting both predators and pests. Knowledge of the temporal constraints that influence sampling is required because arthropod abundance estimates are likely to vary over a growing season and within a day. Few studies have adequately quantified this effect using the beat sheet, a potentially important sampling method. We compared the commonly used methods of suction and visual sampling to the beat sheet, with reference to an absolute cage clamp method for determining the abundance of various arthropod taxa over 5 weeks. There were significantly more entomophagous arthropods recorded using the beat sheet and cage clamp methods than by using suction or visual sampling, and these differences were more pronounced as the plants grew. In a second trial, relative estimates of entomophagous and phytophagous arthropod abundance were made using beat sheet samples collected over a day. Beat sheet estimates of the abundance of only eight of the 43 taxa examined were found to vary significantly over a day. Beat sheet sampling is recommended in further studies of arthropod abundance in cotton, but researchers and pest management advisors should bear in mind the time of season and time of day effects.

Confirmation of QTL mapping and marker validation for partial seedling resistance to crown rot in wheat line '2-49'

We have tested the efficacy of putative microsatellite single sequence repeat (SSR) markers, previously identified in a 2-49 (Gluyas Early/Gala) × Janz doubled haploid wheat (Triticum aestivum) population, as being linked to partial seedling resistance to crown rot disease caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum. The quantitative trait loci (QTLs) delineated by these markers have been tested for linkage to resistance in an independent Gluyas Early × Janz doubled haploid population. The presence of a major QTL on chromosome 1DL (QCr.usq-1D1) and a minor QTL on chromosome 2BS (QCr.usq-2B1) was confirmed. However, a putative minor QTL on chromosome 2A was not confirmed. The QTL on 1D was inherited from Gluyas Early, a direct parent of 2-49, whereas the 2B QTL was inherited from Janz. Three other putative QTLs identified in 2-49 × Janz (on 1AL, 4BL, and 7BS) were inherited by 2-49 from Gala and were not able to be confirmed in this study. The screening of SSR markers on a small sample of elite wheat genotypes indicated that not all of the most tightly linked SSR markers flanking the major QTLs on 1D and 1A were polymorphic in all backgrounds, indicating the need for additional flanking markers when backcrossing into some elite pedigrees. Comparison of SSR haplotypes with those of other genotypes exhibiting partial crown rot resistance suggests that additional, novel sources of crown rot resistance are available.

Predator presence moves Helicoverpa armigera larvae to distraction

Displacement of herbivorous insects by the presence of predators on whole plants has rarely been studied. By semi-continuous observations of an externally feeding insect herbivore and a predator, we show how the mere presence of the predator, Geocoris lubra Kirkaldy (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), on a plant can have a strong influence on the movement and behaviors of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae. The presence of predators, as opposed to mortality by predators, influenced the proportion of larvae feeding, resting and implementing avoidance activities. In addition, the proportion of time individual larvae allocated to feeding, resting and dropping off plants was affected when predators were present with and without contact between the two. Predators do more than just reduce numbers of herbivores; they influence feeding, displacement and subsequently the distribution of plant damage.

Evidence of a latitudinal gradient in spider diversity in Australian cotton

The most common explanation for species diversity increasing towards the tropics is the corresponding increase in habitats (spatial heterogeneity). Consequently, a monoculture (like cotton in Australia) which is grown along a latitudinal gradient, should have the same degree of species diversity throughout its range. We tested to see if diversity in a dominant cotton community (spiders) changed with latitude, and if the community was structurally identical in different parts of Australia. We sampled seven sites extending over 20 degrees of latitude. At each site we sampled 1-3 fields 3-5 times during the cotton growing season using pitfall traps and beatsheets, recording all the spiders collected to family. We found that spider communities in cotton are diverse, including a large range of foraging guilds, making them suitable for a conservation biological control programme. We also found that spider diversity increased from high to low latitudes, and the communities were different, even though the spiders were in the same monocultural habitat. Spider beatsheet communities around Australia were dominated by different families, and responded differently to seasonal changes, indicating that different pest groups would be targeted at different locations. These results show that diversity can increase from high to low latitudes, even if spatial heterogeneity is held constant, and that other factors external to the cotton crop are influencing spider species composition. Other models which may account for the latitudinal gradient, such as non-equilibrium regional processes, are discussed.

A marker-assisted backcross approach for developing submergence-tolerant rice cultivars

Submergence stress regularly affects 15 million hectares or more of rainfed lowland rice areas in South and Southeast Asia. A major QTL on chromosome 9, Sub1, has provided the opportunity to apply marker assisted backcrossing (MAB) to develop submergence tolerant versions of rice cultivars that are widely grown in the region. In the present study, molecular markers that were tightly linked with Sub1, flanking Sub1, and unlinked to Sub1 were used to apply foreground, recombinant, and background selection, respectively, in backcrosses between a submergence-tolerant donor and the widely grown recurrent parent Swarna. By the BC2F2 generation a submergence tolerant plant was identified that possessed Swarna type simple sequence repeat (SSR) alleles on all fragments analyzed except the tip segment of rice chromosome 9 that possessed the Sub1 locus. A BC3F2 double recombinant plant was identified that was homozygous for all Swarna type alleles except for an approximately 2.3-3.4 Mb region surrounding the Sub1 locus. The results showed that the mega variety Swarna could be efficiently converted to a submergence tolerant variety in three backcross generations, involving a time of two to three years. Polymorphic markers for foreground and recombinant selection were identified for four other mega varieties to develop a wider range of submergence tolerant varieties to meet the needs of farmers in the flood-prone regions. This approach demonstrates the effective use of marker assisted selection for a major QTL in a molecular breeding program.

New annual and short-lived perennial pasture legumes for Australian agriculture--15 years of revolution

Fifteen years ago subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) and annual medics (Medicago spp.) dominated annual pasture legume sowings in southern Australia, while limited pasture legume options existed for cropping areas of subtropical Australia. Since then a number of sustainability and economic challenges to existing farming systems have emerged, exposing shortcomings in these species and the lack of legume biodiversity. Public breeding institutions have responded to these challenges by developing 58 new annual and short-lived perennial pasture legumes with adaptation to both existing and new farming systems. This has involved commercialisation of new species and overcoming deficiencies in traditional species. Traits incorporated in legumes of Mediterranean Basin origin for the Mediterranean, temperate and southern subtropical climates of Australia include deeper root systems, protection from false breaks (germination-inducing rainfall events followed by death from drought), a range of hardseed levels, acid-soil tolerant root nodule symbioses, tolerance to pests and diseases and provision of lower cost seed through ease of seed harvesting and processing. Ten new species, French serradella (Ornithopus sativus), biserrula (Biserrula pelecinus), sulla (Hedysarum coronarium), gland (Trifolium glanduliferum), arrowleaf (Trifolium vesiculosum), eastern star (Trifolium dasyurum) and crimson (Trifolium incarnatum) clovers and sphere (Medicago sphaerocarpos), button (Medicago orbicularis) and hybrid disc (Medicago tornata x Medicago littoralis) medics have been commercialised. Improved cultivars have also been developed of subterranean (T. subterraneum), balansa (Trifolium michelianum), rose (Trifolium hirtum), Persian (Trifolium resupinatum) and purple (Trifolium purpureum) clovers, burr (Medicago polymorpha), strand (M. littoralis), snail (Medicago scutellata) and barrel (Medicago truncatula) medics and yellow serradella (Ornithopus compressus). New tropical legumes for pasture phases in subtropical cropping areas include butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea), burgundy bean (Macroptilium bracteatum) and perennial lablab (Lablab purpureus). Other species and cultivars of Mediterranean species are likely to be released soon. The contributions of genetic resources, rhizobiology, pasture ecology and agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, plant chemistry and animal science have been paramount to this success. A farmer survey in Western Australia has shown widespread adoption of the new pasture legumes, while adoption of new tropical legumes has also been high in cropping areas of the subtropics. This trend is likely to increase due to the increasing cost of inorganic nitrogen, the need to combat herbicide-resistant crop weeds and improved livestock prices. Mixtures of these legumes allows for more robust pastures buffered against variable seasons, soils, pests, diseases and management decisions. This paper discusses development of the new pasture legumes, their potential use and deficiencies in the current suite. 'Ground–breaking Stuff’- Proceedings of the 13th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, 10-14 September 2006, Perth, Western Australia.

Seasonal changes in pasture quality and diet selection and their relationship with liveweight gain of steers grazing tropical grass and grass-legume pastures in northern Australia.

The variation in liveweight gain in grazing beef cattle as influenced by pasture type, season and year effects has important economic implications for mixed crop-livestock systems and the ability to better predict such variation would benefit beef producers by providing a guide for decision making. To identify key determinants of liveweight change of Brahman-cross steers grazing subtropical pastures, measurements of pasture quality and quantity, and diet quality in parallel with liveweight were made over two consecutive grazing seasons (48 and 46 weeks, respectively), on mixed Clitoria ternatea/grass, Stylosanthes seabrana/grass and grass swards (grass being a mixture of Bothriochloa insculpta cv. Bisset, Dichanthium sericeum and Panicum maximum var. trichoglume cv. Petrie). Steers grazing the legume-based pastures had the highest growth rate and gained between 64 and 142 kg more than those grazing the grass pastures in under 12 months. Using an exponential model, green leaf mass, green leaf %, adjusted green leaf % (adjusted for inedible woody legume stems), faecal near infrared reflectance spectroscopy predictions of diet crude protein and diet dry matter digestibility, accounted for 77, 74, 80, 63 and 60%, respectively, of the variation in daily weight gain when data were pooled across pasture types and grazing seasons. The standard error of the regressions indicated that 95% prediction intervals were large (+/- 0.42-0.64 kg/head.day) suggesting that derived regression relationships have limited practical application for accurately estimating growth rate. In this study, animal factors, especially compensatory growth effects, appeared to have a major influence on growth rate in relation to pasture and diet attributes. It was concluded that predictions of growth rate based only on pasture or diet attributes are unlikely to be accurate or reliable. Nevertheless, key pasture attributes such as green leaf mass and green leaf% provide a robust indication of what proportion of the potential growth rate of the grazing animals can be achieved.

Improved termite resistance of wood by wax impregnation.

We investigated the effect of wax-treated and biocide-free wood specimens against three different termite species. A laboratory no-choice test with Reticulitermes banyulensis Clément was carried out in Valencia (Spain) under Mediterranean conditions for eight weeks. Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris L.) fully impregnated with distinct waxes was used. Two field trials were conducted with Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt in northern Queensland (Australia) with wax-impregnated beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) for 16 weeks. All three subterranean termites are of major economic importance in their respective regions. The results indicated that feeding pressure by the termites was sufficient within all trials for a valid test. Wax-impregnated Scots pine sapwood was classified as durable. No termites survived the test. The results showed an aging process under submersion conditions, which lead to a classification of moderately durable. The paraffin treatment showed good termite resistance under both test procedures, and was classified as durable. The Australian field trials showed a decreased mass loss of wax-treated beech, in which an amide wax showed excellent termite resistance. The results indicate a clear dependence of the termite resistance on the type and ratio of wax used and the feeding preferences of the specific termite species.

Termite resistance of DMDHEU-treated wood.

Four field trials were conducted with wood modified with dimethyloldihydroxy-ethyleneurea (DMDHEU) in contact with subterranean termites. Trials 1 to 3 were conducted with Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt); 1 and 2 in south-east Queensland, and 3 in northern Queensland, Australia. Trial 4 was conducted in northern Queensland with Mastotermes darwiniensis (Froggatt). Four timber species (Scots pine, beech, Slash pine and Spotted gum) and two levels (1.3 M and 2.3 M) of DMDHEU were used. The tests were validated. DMDHEU successfully prevented damage by C. acinaciformis in south-east Queensland, but not in northern Queensland. It also did not protect the wood against M. darwiniensis. Except for beech in trial 4, DMDHEU led to reduced mass losses caused by termite attack compared to the unmodified feeder stakes. Slash pine (in trials 1 and 3) and Spotted gum (in trial 1) presented low mass losses. Modification of Scots pine was more effective against termite damage than the modification of beech.