Effective Use in Livestock Feeds of Mouldy and Weather-damaged Grain Containing Mycotoxins-Case Histories and Economic Assessments Pertaining to Pig and Poultry Industries of Queensland

Mould growth in field crops or stored grain reduces starch and lipid content, with consequent increases in fibre, and an overall reduction in digestible energy; palatability is often adversely affected. If these factors are allowed for, and mycotoxin concentrations are low, there are sound economic reasons for using this cheaper grain. Mycotoxins are common in stock feed but their effects on animal productivity are usually slight because either the concentration is too low or the animal is tolerant to the toxin. In Australia, aflatoxins occur in peanut by-products and in maize and sorghum if the grain is moist when stored. Zearalenone is found in maize and in sorghum and wheat in wetter regions. Nivalenol and deoxynivalenol are found in maize and wheat but at concentrations that rarely affect pigs, with chickens and cattle being even more tolerant. Other mycotoxins including cyclopiazonic acid, T-2 toxin, cytochalasins and tenuazonic acid are produced by Australian fungi in culture but are not found to be significant grain contaminants. Extremely mouldy sorghum containing Alternaria and Fusarium mycotoxins decreased feed conversion in pigs and chickens by up to 14%. However, E moniliforme- and Diplodia maydis-infected maize produced only slight reductions in feed intake by pigs and Ustilago- infected barley produced no ill effects. Use of these grains would substantially increase profits if the grain can be purchased cheaply.

Antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolated from poultry in the South-East Queensland region

Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns of 125 Campylobacter jejuni and 27 Campylobacter coli isolates from 39 Queensland broiler farms. Methods: Two methods, a disc diffusion assay and an agar-based MIC assay, were used. The disc diffusion was performed and interpreted as previously described (Huysmans MB, Turnidge JD. Disc susceptibility testing for thermophilic campylobacters. Pathology 1997; 29: 209–16), whereas the MIC assay was performed according to CLSI (formerly NCCLS) methods and interpreted using DANMAP criteria. Results: In both assays, no C. jejuni or C. coli isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin or chloramphenicol, no C. coli were resistant to nalidixic acid, and no C. jejuni were resistant to erythromycin. In the MIC assay, no C. jejuni isolate was resistant to nalidixic acid, whereas three isolates (2.4%) were resistant in the disc assay. The highest levels of resistance of the C. jejuni isolates were recorded for tetracycline (19.2% by MIC and 18.4% by disc) and ampicillin (19.2% by MIC and 17.6% by disc). The C. coli isolates gave very similar results (tetracycline resistance 14.8% by both MIC and disc; ampicillin resistance 7.4% by MIC and 14.8% by disc). Conclusions: This work has shown that the majority of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates were susceptible to the six antibiotics tested by both disc diffusion and MIC methods. Disc diffusion represents a suitable alternative methodology to agar-based MIC methods for poultry Campylobacter isolates.

Odour Emissions from Tunnel Ventilated Poultry Housing

In Australia, factors such as local planning processes, urban encroachment into rural areas and intensification of the poultry industry have increased the potential for odour and dust nuisance. At present, accurate estimates of odour emissions from mechanically ventilated poultry housing systems do not exist for Australian conditions. This has made the poultry industry vulnerable to unsubstantiated criticism. Recently, the Australian poultry industry have made a significant investment in research to obtain accurate estimates of odour, dust and volatile chemical emission rates from typical poultry housing systems. This paper describes the measurement of odour emissions from tunnel ventilated poultry housing systems in different climatic zones in Queensland and Victoria, Australia (humid sub-tropical and Mediterranean respectively) during two seasons (summer and winter). Samples were collected at defined intervals over typical batch production cycles to define the odour emission profiles. These samples were analysed using dynamic olfactometry according to the Australian Standard 4323.3 to derive the odour concentration values. Ventilation rates were measured concurrently, allowing the calculation of odour emission rates. Odour concentration and emission rates were assessed in terms of ventilation rate, ambient and shed air temperature and relative humidity and litter moisture status. Odour emission rates varied with bird age. Seasonal differences in odour emission rate were also observed.

Implementation of an electronic nose for continuous odour monitoring in a poultry shed

Continuous odour monitoring technologies are necessary to understand the complex odour-generating mechanisms within poultry housing as well as to identify strategies to reduce the impact of odour emissions on local communities. To evaluate electronic nose (EN) technologies for continuously assessing odour concentration in poultry housing, a mobile laboratory containing an electronic nose and an associated sample delivery system was deployed to a commercial poultry farm and tested over a broiler production cycle. The results demonstrated that it was possible to develop a model to allow an electronic nose to provide a semi-continuous measurement of odour concentrations. The electronic nose was also able to demonstrate the influence of shed conditions on odour emissions.

Evaluation of the most effective measures of infectivity of a precocious line of Eimeria acervulina in poultry

Coccidiosis is an economically important parasitic disease of chickens that, in Australia, is caused by seven species of the genus Eimeria.1 The disease has traditionally been controlled by prophylactic drugs, but vaccination with attenuated lines of the parasites2–4 is rapidly gaining acceptance world wide. Live Eimeria vaccines are produced in batches which are not frozen and have a limited shelf life. The per cent infectivity of vaccine seed stocks and the vaccines produced from them must therefore be accurately monitored using standardised dose dependant assays to ensure that shelf life, quality control and vaccine release specifications are met. Infectivity for the chicken host cannot readily be determined by microscopic observation of oocysts or sporocyst hatching.5 Dose dependent parameters such as body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, visual lesion scores, mortality, oocysts production, clinical symptoms and microscopic lesion counts could be used as measures of infectivity.6–11 These parameters show significant dose dependant effects with field strains, but lines of vaccine parasites that have been selected for precocious development with associated reduced virulence and reproductive capability may not have the same effect.3,4 The aim of this trial was to determine which parameters provide the most effective measures of infective dose in birds inoculated with a precocious vaccine strain.

Risk-based surveillance for avian influenza control along poultry market chains in South China: The value of social network analysis.

Over the past two decades, the poultry sector in China went through a phase of tremendous growth as well as rapid intensification and concentration. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) subtype H5N1 was first detected in 1996 in Guangdong province, South China and started spreading throughout Asia in early 2004. Since then, control of the disease in China has relied heavily on wide-scale preventive vaccination combined with movement control, quarantine and stamping out. This strategy has been successful in drastically reducing the number of outbreaks during the past 5 years. However, HPAIV H5N1 is still circulating and is regularly isolated in traditional live bird markets (LBMs) where viral infection can persist, which represent a public health hazard for people visiting them. The use of social network analysis in combination with epidemiological surveillance in South China has identified areas where the success of current strategies for HPAI control in the poultry production sector may benefit from better knowledge of poultry trading patterns and the LBM network configuration as well as their capacity for maintaining HPAIV H5N1 infection. We produced a set of LBM network maps and estimated the associated risk of HPAIV H5N1 within LBMs and along poultry market chains, providing new insights into how live poultry trade and infection are intertwined. More specifically, our study provides evidence that several biosecurity factors such as daily cage cleaning, daily cage disinfection or manure processing contribute to a reduction in HPAIV H5N1 presence in LBMs. Of significant importance is that the results of our study also show the association between social network indicators and the presence of HPAIV H5N1 in specific network configurations such as the one represented by the counties of origin of the birds traded in LBMs. This new information could be used to develop more targeted and effective control interventions.

A simple, one-tube assay for the simultaneous detection and diagnosis of ten Australian poultry Eimeria

Coccidiosis is a costly worldwide enteric disease of chickens caused by parasites of the genus Eimeria. At present, there are seven described species that occur globally and a further three undescribed, operational taxonomic units (OTUs X, Y, and Z) that are known to infect chickens from Australia. Species of Eimeria have both overlapping morphology and pathology and frequently occur as mixed-species infections. This makes definitive diagnosis with currently available tests difficult and, to date, there is no test for the detection of the three OTUs. This paper describes the development of a PCR-based assay that is capable of detecting all ten species of Eimeria, including OTUs X, Y, and Z in field samples. The assay is based on a single set of generic primers that amplifies a single diagnostic fragment from the mitochondrial genome of each species. This one-tube assay is simple, low-cost, and has the capacity to be high throughput. It will therefore be of great benefit to the poultry industry for Eimeria detection and control, and the confirmation of identity and purity of vaccine strains.

Bentonite can decrease ammonia volatilisation losses from poultry litter: laboratory studies

Ammonia volatilisation from manure materials within poultry sheds can adversely affect production, and also represents a loss of fertiliser value from the spent litter. This study sought to compare the ability of alum and bentonite to decrease volatilisation losses of ammonia from spent poultry litter. An in-vessel volatilisation trial with air flushing, ammonia collection, and ammonia analysis was conducted over 64 days to evaluate the mitigation potential of these two materials. Water-saturated spent litter was incubated at 25°C in untreated condition (control) or with three treatments: an industry-accepted rate of alum [4% Al2(SO4)3·18H2O by dry mass of litter dry mass; ALUM], air-dry bentonite (127% by dry mass; BENT), or water-saturated bentonite (once again at 127% by dry mass; SATBENT). A high proportion of the nitrogen contained in the untreated spent litter was volatilised (62%). Bentonite additions were superior to alum additions at retaining spent litter ammonia (nitrogen losses: 15%, SATBENT; 34%, BENT; 54%, ALUM). Where production considerations favour comparable high rates of bentonite addition (e.g. where the litter is to be re-formulated as a fertiliser), this clay has potential to decrease ammonia volatilisation either in-shed or in spent litter stockpiles or formulated products, without the associated detrimental effect of alum on phosphorus availability.

Mapping the carriage of flaA-restriction fragment length polymorphism Campylobacter genotypes on poultry carcasses through the processing chain and comparison to clinical isolates

Poultry are considered a major source for campylobacteriosis in humans. A total of 1866 Campylobacter spp. isolates collected through the poultry processing chain were typed using flaA-restriction fragment length polymorphism to measure the impact of processing on the genotypes present. Temporally related human clinical isolates (n = 497) were also typed. Isolates were obtained from whole chicken carcass rinses of chickens collected before scalding, after scalding, before immersion chilling, after immersion chilling and after packaging as well as from individual caecal samples. A total of 32 genotypes comprising at least four isolates each were recognised. Simpson's Index of Diversity (D) was calculated for each sampling site within each flock, for each flock as a whole and for the clinical isolates. From caecal collection to after packaging samples the D value did not change in two flocks, decreased in one flock and increased in the fourth flock. Dominant genotypes occurred in each flock but their constitutive percentages changed through processing. There were 23 overlapping genotypes between clinical and chicken isolates. The diversity of Campylobacter is flock dependant and may alter through processing. This study confirms that poultry are a source of campylobacteriosis in the Australian population although other sources may contribute.

Water addition, evaporation and water holding capacity of poultry litter

Litter moisture content has been related to ammonia, dust and odour emissions as well as bird health and welfare. Improved understanding of the water holding properties of poultry litter as well as water additions to litter and evaporation from litter will contribute to improved litter moisture management during the meat chicken grow-out. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how management and environmental conditions over the course of a grow-out affect the volume of water A) applied to litter, B) able to be stored in litter, and C) evaporated from litter on a daily basis. The same unit of measurement has been used to enable direct comparison—litres of water per square metre of poultry shed floor area, L/m2, assuming a litter depth of 5 cm. An equation was developed to estimate the amount of water added to litter from bird excretion and drinking spillage, which are sources of regular water application to the litter. Using this equation showed that water applied to litter from these sources changes over the course of a grow-out, and can be as much as 3.2 L/m2/day. Over a 56 day grow-out, the total quantity of water added to the litter was estimated to be 104 L/m2. Litter porosity, water holding capacity and water evaporation rates from litter were measured experimentally. Litter porosity decreased and water holding capacity increased over the course of a grow-out due to manure addition. Water evaporation rates at 25 °C and 50% relative humidity ranged from 0.5 to 10 L/m2/day. Evaporation rates increased with litter moisture content and air speed. Maintaining dry litter at the peak of a grow-out is likely to be challenging because evaporation rates from dry litter may be insufficient to remove the quantity of water added to the litter on a daily basis.

Fate of key food-borne pathogens associated with intensive pig and poultry farming environments

Intensive pig and poultry farming in Australia can be a source of pathogens with implications for food-safety and/or human illness. Seven studies were undertaken with the following objectives: · Assess the types of zoonotic pathogens in waste · Assess the transfer of pathogens during re-use both within the shed and externally in the environment · The potential for movement of pathogens via aerosols In the first and second studies the extent of zoonotic pathogens was evaluated in both piggery effluent and chicken litter and Salmonella and Campylobacter were detected in both wastes. In the third study the dynamics of Salmonella during litter re-use was examined and results showed a trend for lower Salmonella levels and serovar diversity in re-used litter compared to new litter. Thus, re-use within the poultry farming system posed no increased risk. The fourth study addressed the direct risks of pathogens to farm workers due to reuse of piggery effluent within the pig shed. Based on air-borne Escherichia coli (E. coli) levels, re-using effluent did not pose a risk. In the fifth study high levels of Arcobacter spp. were detected in effluent ponds and freshly irrigated soils with potential food-safety risks during the irrigation of food-crops and pasture. The sixth and seventh studies addressed the risks from aerosols from mechanically ventilated sheds. Staphylococci were shown to have potential as markers, with airborne levels gradually dropping and reaching background levels at 400 m distance. Salmonella was detected (at low levels) both inside and outside the shed (at 10 m). Campylobacter was detected only once inside the shed during the 3-year period (at low levels). Results showed there was minimal risk to humans living adjacent to poultry farms This is the first comprehensive analysis studying key food-safety pathogens and potential public health risks associated with intensively farmed pigs and poultry in Australia.

Water activity of poultry litter: Relationship to moisture content during a grow-out

Poultry grown on litter floors are in contact with their own waste products. The waste material needs to be carefully managed to reduce food safety risks and to provide conditions that are comfortable and safe for the birds. Water activity (Aw) is an important thermodynamic property that has been shown to be more closely related to microbial, chemical and physical properties of natural products than moisture content. In poultry litter, Aw is relevant for understanding microbial activity; litter handling and rheological properties; and relationships between in-shed relative humidity and litter moisture content. We measured the Aw of poultry litter collected throughout a meat chicken grow-out (from fresh pine shavings bedding material to day 52) and over a range of litter moisture content (10–60%). The Aw increased non-linearly from 0.71 to 1.0, and reached a value of 0.95 when litter moisture content was only 22–33%. Accumulation of manure during the grow-out reduced Aw for the same moisture content. These results are relevant for making decisions regarding litter re-use in multiple grow-outs as well as setting targets for litter moisture content to minimise odour, microbial risks and to ensure necessary litter physical conditions are maintained during a grow-out. Methods to predict Aw in poultry litter from moisture content are proposed.