Cellular stages of root formation, root system quality and survival of Pinuselliottii var. elliottii x P. caribaea var. hondurensis cuttings in different temperature environments.

Time to first root in cuttings varies under different environmental conditions and understanding these differences is critical for optimizing propagation of commercial forestry species. Temperature environment (15, 25, 30 or 352C) had no effect on the cellular stages in root formation of the Slash * Caribbean Pine hybrid over 16 weeks as determined by histology. Initially callus cells formed in the cortex, then tracheids developed and formed primordia leading to external roots. However, speed of development followed a growth curve with the fastest development occurring at 25C and slowest at 15C with rooting percentages at week 12 of 80 and 0% respectively. Cutting survival was good in the three cooler temperature regimes (>80%) but reduced to 59% at 35C. Root formation appeared to be dependant on the initiation of tracheids because all un-rooted cuttings had callus tissue but no tracheids, irrespective of temperature treatment and clone.

Temperature and Salinity Tolerances of the Tropical Spiny Lobster, Panulirus ornatus

Interest in the development of aquaculture of the tropical spiny lobster, Panulirus ornatus, has increased markedly over the past 10 yr because of strong market demand and high prices. In Australia, economic conditions will necessitate that a semi-intensive approach be taken, possibly involving managed environmental conditions. Identification of optimal temperature and salinity levels will be necessary, and therefore two experiments were performed to examine these two parameters. Juvenile lobsters were grown in tanks at five temperatures (19, 22, 25, 28 and 31 C). Growth was significantly affected by temperature (P < 0.01), and maximal growth occurred at 25-31 C. Examination of the temperature effect on molt increment and intermolt period indicated that 27 C was the optimal temperature, at which molt increment was greatest and intermolt period the least. Temperature also had a significant (P < 0.01) positive effect on apparent feed intake (AFI). Juvenile lobsters were also exposed to four different salinities (20, 25, 30 and 35 ppt) over a period of 91 d. Significant differences (P < 0.01) were apparent for both survival and growth. Lowest survival occurred at 35 ppt which may be attributable to higher cannibalism at that salinity. Growth was highest at 35 ppt and progressively less at lower salinities. Although full marine salinity (35 ppt) will generate best performance of P. ornatus, its capacity to tolerate reduced salinity will provide greater opportunity to develop commercial aquaculture.

Effect of constant temperature on the development of Sceliodes cordalis (Doubleday) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on eggplant.

Abstract Sceliodes cordalis, eggfruit caterpillar, is an important pest of eggplant in Australia but little information was available on its biology. This study was conducted to determine the effect of temperature on the development on eggplant of eggs, larvae and pupae. Insects were reared at five constant temperatures from 20.5°C to 30.5°C with a 12:12 L : D photoperiod and the thermal summation model was fitted to the developmental rate data. Developmental zeroes and thermal constants of 11.22°C and 61.32 day-degrees for eggs, 12.03°C and 179.60 day-degrees for larvae, and 14.43°C and 107.03 day-degrees for pupae were determined. Several larvae reared at 20.5°C entered diapause.

Modelling temperature, photoperiod and vernalization responses of Brunonia australis (Goodeniaceae) and Calandrinia sp (Portulacaceae) to predict flowering time

Crop models for herbaceous ornamental species typically include functions for temperature and photoperiod responses, but very few incorporate vernalization, which is a requirement of many traditional crops. This study investigated the development of floriculture crop models, which describe temperature responses, plus photoperiod or vernalization requirements, using Australian native ephemerals Brunonia australis and Calandrinia sp. A novel approach involved the use of a field crop modelling tool, DEVEL2. This optimization program estimates the parameters of selected functions within the development rate models using an iterative process that minimizes sum of squares residual between estimated and observed days for the phenological event. Parameter profiling and jack-knifing are included in DEVEL2 to remove bias from parameter estimates and introduce rigour into the parameter selection process. Development rate of B. australis from planting to first visible floral bud (VFB) was predicted using a multiplicative approach with a curvilinear function to describe temperature responses and a broken linear function to explain photoperiod responses. A similar model was used to describe the development rate of Calandrinia sp., except the photoperiod function was replaced with an exponential vernalization function, which explained a facultative cold requirement and included a coefficient for determining the vernalization ceiling temperature. Temperature was the main environmental factor influencing development rate for VFB to anthesis of both species and was predicted using a linear model. The phenology models for B. australis and Calandrinia sp. described development rate from planting to VFB and from VFB to anthesis in response to temperature and photoperiod or vernalization and may assist modelling efforts of other herbaceous ornamental plants. In addition to crop management, the vernalization function could be used to identify plant communities most at risk from predicted increases in temperature due to global warming.

Genetic variability in high temperature effects on seed-set in sorghum

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is grown as a dryland crop in semiarid subtropical and tropical environments where it is often exposed to high temperatures around flowering. Projected climate change is likely to increase the incidence of exposure to high temperature, with potential adverse effects on growth, development and grain yield. The objectives of this study were to explore genetic variability for the effects of high temperature on crop growth and development, in vitro pollen germination and seed-set. Eighteen diverse sorghum genotypes were grown at day : night temperatures of 32 : 21 degrees C (optimum temperature, OT) and 38 : 21 degrees C (high temperature, HT during the middle of the day) in controlled environment chambers. HT significantly accelerated development, and reduced plant height and individual leaf size. However, there was no consistent effect on leaf area per plant. HT significantly reduced pollen germination and seed-set percentage of all genotypes; under HT, genotypes differed significantly in pollen viability percentage (17-63%) and seed-set percentage (7-65%). The two traits were strongly and positively associated (R-2 = 0.93, n = 36, P < 0.001), suggesting a causal association. The observed genetic variation in pollen and seed-set traits should be able to be exploited through breeding to develop heat-tolerant varieties for future climates.

Impact of low temperature storage on active and storage forms of folate in choy sum (Brassica rapa subsp parachinensis)

Choy sum (Brassica rapa subsp. parachinensis) is a dark green leafy vegetable that contains high folate (vitamin B9) levels comparable to spinach. Folate is essential for the maintenance of human health and is obtained solely through dietary means. Analysis of the edible portion of choy sum by both microbiological assay and LC-MS/MS indicated that total folate activity remained significantly unchanged over 3 weeks storage at 4 degrees C. Inedible fractions consisted primarily of outer leaves, which showed signs of rotting after 14d, and a combination of rotting and yellowing after 21 d, contributing to 20% and 40% of product removal, respectively. Following deconjugation of the folate present in choy sum to monoglutamate and diglutamate derivatives, the principal forms (vitamers) of folate detected in choy sum were 5-methyltetrahydrofolate and 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate, followed by tetrahydrofolate (THF), 5,10-methenyl-THF, and 10-formyl folic acid. During storage, a significant decline in 5-formyl-THF was observed, with a slight but not significant increase in the combined 5-methyl-THF derivatives. The decline in 5-formyl-THF in relation to the other folate vitamers present may indicate that 5-formyl-THF is being utilised as a folate storage reserve, being interconverted to more metabolically active forms of folate, such as 5-methyl-THF. Although folate vitamer profile changed over the storage period, total folate activity did not significantly change. From a human nutritional perspective this is important, as while particular folate vitamers (e.g. 5-methyl-THF) are necessary for maintaining vital aspects of plant metabolism, it is less important to the human diet, as humans can absorb and interconvert multiple forms of folate. The current trial indicates that it is possible to store choy sum for up to 3 weeks at 4 degrees C without significantly affecting total folate concentration of the edible portion. Crown Copyright (C) 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Production of cuttings in response to stock plant temperature in the subtropical eucalypts, Corymbia citriodora and Eucalyptus dunnii

Propagation of subtropical eucalypts is often limited by low production of rooted cuttings in winter. This study tested whether changing the temperature of Corymbia citriodora and Eucalyptus dunnii stock plants from 28/23A degrees C (day/night) to 18/13A degrees C, 23/18A degrees C or 33/28A degrees C affected the production of cuttings by stock plants, the concentrations of Ca and other nutrients in cuttings, and the subsequent percentages of cuttings that formed roots. Optimal temperatures for shoot production were 33/28A degrees C and 28/23A degrees C, with lower temperatures reducing the number of harvested cuttings. Stock plant temperature regulated production of rooted cuttings, firstly by controlling shoot production and, secondly, by affecting the ensuing rooting percentage. Shoot production was the primary factor regulating rooted cutting production by C. citriodora, but both shoot production and root production were key determinants of rooted cutting production in E. dunnii. Effects of lower stock plant temperatures on rooting were not the result of reduced Ca concentration, but consistent relationships were found between adventitious root formation and B concentration. Average rooting percentages were low (1-15% for C. citriodora and 2-22% for E. dunnii) but rooted cutting production per stock plant (e.g. 25 for C. citriodora and 52 for E. dunnii over 14 weeks at 33/28A degrees C) was sufficient to establish clonal field tests for plantation forestry.

Effect of temperature on the survival of Aconophora compressa Walker (Hemiptera: Membracidae): implications for weed biocontrol

Abstract In weed biocontrol, similarity of abiotic factors between the native and introduced range of a biocontrol agent is critical to its establishment and effectiveness. This is particularly the case for weeds that have a wide geographical distribution in the native range. For such weeds, the choice of a specialist insect that has narrow tolerance limits to important abiotic factors can diminish its ability to be an effective biocontrol agent. The membracid Aconophora compressa was introduced in Australia from Mexico for biocontrol of Lantana camara, a plant with a wide climatic tolerance. In this study we investigated the effect of constant and alternating temperatures on A. compressa survival. Longevity of adults and nymphs declined with increasing temperatures, and at 39°C individuals survived for less than a day. At lower temperatures, nymphs survived longer than adults. Survival at alternating temperatures was longer than at constant temperatures, but the general trend of lower survival at higher temperatures remained. Spatially and temporally, the climatic tolerance of A. compressa appears to be a subset of that of lantana, thereby limiting its potential impact.

More fertile florets and grains per spike can be achieved at higher temperature in wheat lines with high spike biomass and sugar content at booting

An understanding of processes regulating wheat floret and grain number at higher temperatures is required to better exploit genetic variation. In this study we tested the hypothesis that at higher temperatures, a reduction in floret fertility is associated with a decrease in soluble sugars and this response is exacerbated in genotypes low in water soluble carbohydrates (WSC). Four recombinant inbred lines contrasting for stem WSC were grown at 20/10 degrees C and 11 h photoperiod until terminal spikelet, and then continued in a factorial combination of 20/10 degrees C or 28/14 degrees C with 11 h or 16 h photoperiod until anthesis. Across environments, High WSC lines had more grains per spike associated with more florets per spike. The number of fertile florets was associated with spike biomass at booting and, by extension, with glucose amount, both higher in High WSC lines. At booting, High WSC lines had higher fixed C-13 and higher levels of expression of genes involved in photosynthesis and sucrose transport and lower in sucrose degradation compared with Low WSC lines. At higher temperature, the intrinsic rate of floret development rate before booting was slower in High WSC lines. Grain set declined with the intrinsic rate of floret development before booting, with an advantage for High WSC lines at 28/14 degrees C and 16 h. Genotypic and environmental action on floret fertility and grain set was summarised in a model.

Spatial impact of projected changes in rainfall and temperature on wheat yields in Australia

Climate projections over the next two to four decades indicate that most of Australia’s wheat-belt is likely to become warmer and drier. Here we used a shire scale, dynamic stress-index model that accounts for the impacts of rainfall and temperature on wheat yield, and a range of climate change projections from global circulation models to spatially estimate yield changes assuming no adaptation and no CO2 fertilisation effects. We modelled five scenarios, a baseline climate (climatology, 1901–2007), and two emission scenarios (“low” and “high” CO2) for two time horizons, namely 2020 and 2050. The potential benefits from CO2 fertilisation were analysed separately using a point level functional simulation model. Irrespective of the emissions scenario, the 2020 projection showed negligible changes in the modelled yield relative to baseline climate, both using the shire or functional point scale models. For the 2050-high emissions scenario, changes in modelled yield relative to the baseline ranged from −5 % to +6 % across most of Western Australia, parts of Victoria and southern New South Wales, and from −5 to −30 % in northern NSW, Queensland and the drier environments of Victoria, South Australia and in-land Western Australia. Taking into account CO2 fertilisation effects across a North–south transect through eastern Australia cancelled most of the yield reductions associated with increased temperatures and reduced rainfall by 2020, and attenuated the expected yield reductions by 2050.

Low temperature exposure of root system and inflorescence affected flowering and fruit set in 'Chardonnay' grapevines (Vitis vinifera)

The mechanisms by which low temperature affects flowering and fruit set of grapevines are poorly understood, as is the specific response of the grapevine root system and inflorescence to low temperature effects that reduce fruit set. This study aimed to determine the responses of the root system and inflorescence of the grapevine 'Chardonnay' to low temperature (10 degrees C) during flowering, and considered the possible mechanisms of low temperature effects on those parts. Temperature treatments of 10 degrees C or 20 degrees C were imposed to potted 'Chardonnay' grapevines in a glasshouse for up to two weeks during the early stages of flowering. When the root system alone was exposed to 10 degrees C (with the rest of the plant at 20 degrees C) during flowering, the number of attached berries and percentage fruit set were significantly reduced by 50 % than when the root system alone was exposed to 20 degrees C. Whereas, exposure of the inflorescence alone to 10 degrees C (with the rest of the plant at 20 degrees C) delayed flowering, allowed rachis to grow longer, and increased both the number of attached berries (from 22 to 62 per vine) and fruit set (from 8 % to, 20 %), than when the inflorescence alone was exposed to 20 degrees C. This study will enhance our understanding of the possible mechanisms of low temperature effects on grapevine fruit set and productivity.

Sorghum genotypes differ in high temperature responses for seed set

Significant genotypic differences in tolerance of pollen germination and seed set to high temperatures have been shown in sorghum. However, it is unclear whether differences were associated with variation in either the threshold temperature above which reproductive processes are affected, or in the tolerance to increased temperature above that threshold. The objectives of this study were to (a) dissect known differences in heat tolerance for a range of sorghum genotypes into differences in the threshold temperature and tolerance to increased temperatures, (b) determine whether poor seed set under high temperatures can be compensated by increased seed mass, and (c) identify whether genotypic differences in heat tolerance in a controlled environment facility (CEF) can be reproduced in field conditions. Twenty genotypes were grown in a CEF under four day/night temperatures (31.9/21.0 °C, 32.8/21.0 °C, 36.1/21.0 °C, and 38.0/21.0 °C), and a subset of six genotypes was grown in the field under four different temperature regimes around anthesis. The novelty of the findings in this study related to differences in responsiveness to high temperature—genotypic differences in seed set percentage were found for both the threshold temperature and the tolerance to increased maximum temperature above that threshold. Further, the response of seed set to high temperature in the field study was well correlated to that in the CEF (R2 = 0.69), although the slope was significantly less than unity, indicating that heat stress effects may have been diluted under the variable field conditions. Poor seed set was not compensated by increased seed mass in either CEF or field environments. Grain yield was thus closely related to seed set percentage. This result demonstrates the potential for development of a low-cost field screening method to identify high-temperature tolerant varieties that could deliver sustainable yields under future warmer climates.

Effect of drying, storage temperature and air exposure on astaxanthin stability from Haematococcus pluvialis

Astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant with various health benefits such as prevention of age-related macular degeneration and improvement of the immune system, liver and heart function. To improve the post-harvesting stability of astaxanthin used in food, feed and nutraceutical industries, the biomass of the high astaxanthin producing alga Haematococcus pluvialis was dried by spray- or freeze-drying and under vacuum or air at − 20 °C to 37 °C for 20 weeks. Freeze-drying led to 41 higher astaxanthin recovery compared to commonly-used spray-drying. Low storage temperature (− 20 °C, 4 °C) and vacuum-packing also showed higher astaxanthin stability with as little as 12.3 ± 3.1 degradation during 20 weeks of storage. Cost-benefit analysis showed that freeze-drying followed by vacuum-packed storage at − 20 °C can generate AUD600 higher profit compared to spray-drying from 100 kg H. pluvialis powder. Therefore, freeze-drying can be suggested as a mild and more profitable method for ensuring longer shelf life of astaxanthin from H. pluvialis.