An overview of integrated pest management (IPM) in north-eastern Australian grain farming systems: Past, present and future prospects

The authors overview integrated pest management (IPM) in grain crops in north-eastern Australia, which is defined as the area north of latitude 32°S. Major grain crops in this region include the coarse grains (winter and summer cereals), oilseeds and pulses. IPM in these systems is complicated by the diversity of crops, pests, market requirements and cropping environments. In general, the pulse crops are at greatest risk, followed by oilseeds and then by cereal grains. Insecticides remain a key grain pest management tool in north-eastern Australia. IPM in grain crops has benefited considerably through the increased adoption of new, more selective insecticides and biopesticides for many caterpillar pests, in particular Helicoverpa spp. and loopers, and the identification of pest-crop scenarios where spraying is unnecessary (e.g. for most Creontiades spp. populations in soybeans). This has favoured the conservation of natural enemies in north-eastern Australia grain crops, and has arguably assisted in the management of silverleaf whitefly in soybeans in coastal Queensland. However, control of sucking pests and podborers such as Maruca vitrata remains a major challenge for IPM in summer pulses. Because these crops have very low pest-damage tolerances and thresholds, intervention with disruptive insecticides is frequently required, particularly during podfill. The threat posed by silverleaf whitefly demands ongoing multi-pest IPM research, development and extension as this pest can flare under favourable seasonal conditions, especially where disruptive insecticides are used injudiciously. The strong links between researchers and industry have facilitated the adoption of IPM practices in north-eastern Australia and augers well for future pest challenges and for the development and promotion of new and improved IPM tactics.

Natural enemies of Paropsis atomaria Olivier (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in south-eastern Queensland eucalypt plantations

A field survey for natural enemies of Paropsis atomaria was conducted at two south-eastern Queensland Eucalyptus cloeziana plantation sites during 2004-2005. Primary egg and larval parasitoids and associated hyperparasitoids were identified to genus or species, and parasitism rates were determined throughout the season. Predators were identified to family level but their impact was not quantified. P. atomaria adults were also examined as potential hosts for parasitic mites and nematodes. An undescribed species of Neopolycystus (Pteromalidae) was the major primary egg parasitoid species reared from egg batches, parasitising half of all egg batches collected. Three hyperparasitoid species (Baeoanusia albifunicle (Encyrtidae), Neblatticida sp. (Encyrtidae) and Aphaneromella sp. (Platygasteridae) were present, representing around one-quarter to one-third of all emergent wasps; this is the first host association record for Neopolycystus-B. albifunicle. In contrast to populations of P. atomaria from the Australian Capital Territory, primary larval parasitism was very low, around 1%, and attributable only to the tachinid flies Anagonia sp. and Paropsivora sp. However, the presence of the sit-and-wait larval hyperparasitoid, Perilampus sp. (Perilampidae) was high, emerging from around 17% of tachinid pupae, with planidia infesting a further 40% of unparasitised hosts. Three species of podapolipid mites parasitised sexually mature P. atomaria adults, while no nematodes were found in this study. Spiders were the most common predators and their abundance was positively correlated with P. atomaria adult and egg numbers. Although natural enemy species composition was identical between our two study sites, significant differences in abundance and frequency were found between sites.

Encroachment of Echinococcus granulosus into urban areas in eastern Queensland, Australia

Objective: To investigate the prevalence of Echinococcus granulosus in wild dogs (dingos and dingo-domestic dog hybrids) living in and around human habitation on Fraser Island and in townships of the Maroochy Shire, on Queensland's Sunshine Coast, Australia. Design: Wild dogs were humanely killed on Fraser Island and in the Maroochy Shire because they were deemed a potential danger to the public. Their intestines were collected and the contents examined for intestinal parasites. Procedure: Intestines were removed as soon after death as possible, packed in plastic bags and kept frozen until examination. The intestinal contents were washed, sieved and examined microscopically for the presence of helminths, which were identified and counted. Results: Intestines from 108 wild dogs, 7 foxes and 18 Fraser Island dingoes were examined. Echinococcus granulosus was only present in the wild dogs from Maroochy Shire (46.3%) with worm burdens of between 30 and 104,000. Other helminths included Spirometra erinacei, Dipylidium caninum, Taenia spp., Ancylostoma caninum and Toxocara canis. Two specimens of a trematode (Haplorchinae sp.) usually found infecting fish and seabirds were recovered from a Fraser Island dingo. Conclusion: Dingoes on Fraser Island are not infected with E. granulosus and do not pose a hydatid disease public health risk to residents or visitors. However, wild dogs examined from the Maroochy Shire do present a potential hydatid disease public health risk.

Patterns in the distribution and abundance of female eastern king prawns, Melicertus plebejus (Hess, 1865), capable of spawning and reproductive potential in waters off

Linear mixed models were used to test the null hypothesis that there were no differences between seasons and locations in the reproductive potential of female eastern king prawns, Melicertus plebejus along the east coast of Australia. Three samples were collected in each season between autumn 1991 and winter 1992 (inclusive). Females capable of spawning were found at all locations but proportions were greater in lower than higher latitudes. Females capable of spawning were not found at the southern (highest latitude) most location in all seasons. There was a significant interaction in reproductive potential between seasons and locations suggesting that patterns among seasons differed between locations and vice versa. Reproductive potential was greatest amongst the northern (lower latitudes) most locations and was greatest in autumn at these locations. Seasonal patterns were less pronounced further south (higher latitudes). The length composition of females in catches differed between locations with more larger prawns found in samples from northern locations. The challenge that remains is to quantify the oceanic sources of larvae that contribute to recruitment in each nursery area and the estuarine sources of juveniles that contribute adults back to the effective spawning stock. Maintaining the effective spawning stock and important nursery areas are crucial to the sustainability of this resource.

Paropsine beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in south-eastern Queensland hardwood plantations: identifying potential pest species

Paropsine chrysomelid beetles are significant defoliators of Australian eucalypts. In Queensland, the relatively recent expansion of hardwood plantations has resulted in the emergence of new pest species. Here I identify paropsine beetles collected from Eucalyptus cloeziana Muell. and E. dunnii Maiden, two of the major Eucalyptus species grown in plantations in south-eastern Queensland, and estimate the relative abundance of each paropsine species. Although I was unable to identify all taxa to species level, at least 17 paropsine species were collected, about one-third of which have not been previously associated with hardwood plantations. Paropsis atomaria Olivier and P. charybdis Stål were the most abundant species collected in E. cloeziana plantations, while Chrysophtharta cloelia (Stål) and P. atomaria were most commonly collected from E. dunnii. Occasional collections from Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) Hill and Johns, ssp. variegata revealed an additional four species implicated in plantation damage. Abundance and voltinism varied between species and sites. I predict which paropsine species are likely to threaten plantation productivity.

Achievements in forest tree genetic improvement in Australia and New Zealand 2: Development of Corymbia species and hybrids for plantations in eastern Australia

This paper describes the establishment of provenance seedling seed orchards of three spotted gums and cadaga (all species of Corymbia ex Eucalyptus). It also discusses the limitations of growing the spotted gums as pure species including: lack of mass flowering, susceptibility to a fungal shoot blight and low amenability to vegetative propagation. These limitations, together with observation of putative natural hybrids of the spotted gums with cadaga, and the early promise of manipulated hybrids, led to an intensive breeding and testing program. Many hybrid families have significant advantages in growth and tolerance to disease, insects and frost, and can be vegetatively propagated. They also exhibit broad environmental plasticity, allowing the best varieties to be planted across a wider range of sites than the spotted gums, resulting in more land being suitable for plantation development.

Seasonal incidence of Stenodiplosis sorghicola (Coquillett) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) and its parasitoids on Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. in south-eastern Queensland, Australia

To quantify the role of Johnson grass, Sorghum halepense, in the population dynamics of the sorghum midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola, patterns of flowering of Johnson grass and infestation by sorghum midge were studied in two different climatic environments in the Lockyer Valley and on the Darling Downs in south-eastern Queensland for 3 years. Parasitism levels of S. sorghicola were also recorded. In the Lockyer Valley, Johnson grass panicles were produced throughout the year but on the Darling Downs none were produced between June and September. In both areas, most panicle production occurred between November and March and infestation by S. sorghicola was the greatest during this period. The parasitism levels were between 20% and 50%. After emergence from winter diapause, one to two generations of S. sorghicola developed on S. halepense before commercial grain sorghum crops were available for infestation. Parasitoids recorded were: Aprostocetus diplosidis, Eupelmus australiensis and two species of Tetrastichus. Relationships between sorghum midge population growth rate and various environmental and population variables were investigated. Population size had a significant negative effect (P < 0.0001) on population growth rate. Mortality due to parasitism showed a significant positive density response (P < 0.0001). Temperature, rainfall, open pan evaporation, degree-days and host availability showed no significant effect on population growth rate. Given the phenology of sorghum production in south-eastern Queensland, Johnson grass provides an important bridging host, sustaining one to two generations of sorghum midge. Critical studies relating population change and build-up in sorghum to sorghum midge populations in Johnson grass are yet to be performed.

Genetic erosion and changes in distribution of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. (Moench)) landraces in north-eastern Ethiopia

Ethiopia is believed to be the centre of origin and domestication for sorghum, where sorghum remains one of the main staple crops. Loss of biodiversity is occurring at an alarming rate in Ethiopia and crops, including sorghum, have long been recognized as vulnerable to genetic erosion. A major collection of sorghum germplasm was made in 1973 by Gebrekidan and Ejeta from north-eastern Ethiopia. A new collection of landraces was made in 2003, and these were field evaluated at Sirinka in 2004 along with representative samples from the 1973 collection. Farmer surveys and soil and climate surveys were also performed. Preliminary analysis demonstrated that some important landraces have disappeared either locally or regionally in the past 30 years and many other landraces have become marginalized. Landraces which are less preferred in terms of agronomic value and end use, and introductions, have become increasingly important. Late maturing landraces were found to be particularly vulnerable, with a number disappearing altogether. Farmers have become more risk averse, and factors such as declining soil fertility, more frequent drought and unreliable rainfall, and increased pest infestation have contributed to a change in farmer landrace selection. Data are presented on the variability and unique characters of some of the Ethiopian landraces, and implications for conservation are discussed.

Persistence of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in fox baits and implications for fox management in south-eastern Australia

The persistence of 1080 in two commonly used fox baits, Foxoff ® and chicken wingettes, was assessed under different climatic and rainfall conditions in central-western New South Wales. The rate of 1080 degradation did not change significantly between the Central Tablelands and the relatively hotter and drier environment of the Western Slopes. Loss of 1080 from wingettes was independent of the rainfall and climate conditions, with wingettes remaining lethal to foxes for, on average, 0.9 weeks. Foxoff ® baits remained lethal for longer than wingettes under all tested conditions, although their rate of degradation increased generally with increasing rainfall. As a result, areas baited with Foxoff® will require longer withholding periods for working dogs than those baited with wingettes, especially during dry periods. Wingettes may have advantages for use in sensitive areas where long-term hazards from toxic baits are undesirable. We found significant variations in 1080 concentration in freshly prepared baits that may result in efficacy, non-target and regulatory concerns for baiting campaigns. As a result, the superior quality control and shelf-stability of manufactured Foxoff® may be important criteria for favouring its use over freshly prepared bait types. However, use strategies for any bait type must ensure that foxes consume lethal doses of 1080 to avoid potential problems such as the development of learned aversion to baits or pesticide resistance.

Survey of weed flora and management relative to cropping practices in the north-eastern grain region of Australia

The main weeds and weed management practices undertaken in broad acre dryland cropping areas of north-eastern Australia have been identified. The information was collected in a comprehensive postal survey of both growers and agronomists from Dubbo in New South Wales (NSW) through to Clermont in central Queensland, where 237 surveys were returned. A very diverse weed flora of 105 weeds from 91 genera was identified for the three cropping zones within the region (central Queensland, southern Queensland and northern NSW). Twenty-three weeds were common to all cropping zones. The major common weeds were Sonchus oleraceus, Rapistrum rugosum, Echinochloa spp. and Urochloa panicoides. The main weeds were identified for both summer and winter fallows, and sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops for each of the zones, with some commonality as well as floral uniqueness recorded. More genera were recorded in the fallows than in crops, and those in summer fallows exceeded the number in winter. Across the region, weed management relied heavily on herbicides. In fallows, glyphosate and mixes with glyphosate were very common, although the importance of the glyphosate mix partner differed among the cropping zones. Use and importance of pre-emergence herbicides in-crop varied considerably among the zones. In wheat, more graminicides were used in northern NSW than in southern Queensland, and virtually none were used in central Queensland, reflecting the differences in winter grass weed flora across the region. Atrazine was the major herbicide used in sorghum, although metolachlor was also used predominantly in northern NSW. Fallow and inter-row cultivation were used more often in the southern areas of the region. Grazing of fallows was more prominent in northern NSW. High crop seeding rates were not commonly recorded indicating that growers are not using crop competition as a tool for weed management. Although many management practices were recorded overall, few growers were using integrated weed management, and herbicide resistance has been and continues to be an issue for the region.

Sustained genetic control of wheat rust diseases in north-eastern Australia

Control of wheat rusts in north-eastern Australia has been based on resistance breeding since the early 1920s. It has been an enduring journey of discovery, disappointment, and achievement, which has culminated in a pool of knowledge and expertise upon which today's plant breeders can efficiently target durable resistance to the major rust diseases. This paper outlines significant advances in genetic control of rusts in the region, with particular emphasis on the invaluable role played by the University of Sydney rust control program and its influence on wheat breeding in the region and throughout Australia. This paper is part of ‘Global Landscapes in Cereal Rust Control’, see Aust. J. Agric. Res. Vol. 58, no. 6.

The limit to wheat water-use efficiency in eastern Australia. I. Gradients in the radiation environment and atmospheric demand

In the wheatbelt of eastern Australia, rainfall shifts from winter dominated in the south (South Australia, Victoria) to summer dominated in the north (northern New South Wales, southern Queensland). The seasonality of rainfall, together with frost risk, drives the choice of cultivar and sowing date, resulting in a flowering time between October in the south and August in the north. In eastern Australia, crops are therefore exposed to contrasting climatic conditions during the critical period around flowering, which may affect yield potential, and the efficiency in the use of water (WUE) and radiation (RUE). In this work we analysed empirical and simulated data, to identify key climatic drivers of potential water- and radiation-use efficiency, derive a simple climatic index of environmental potentiality, and provide an example of how a simple climatic index could be used to quantify the spatial and temporal variability in resource-use efficiency and potential yield in eastern Australia. Around anthesis, from Horsham to Emerald, median vapour pressure deficit (VPD) increased from 0.92 to 1.28 kPa, average temperature increased from 12.9 to 15.2°C, and the fraction of diffuse radiation (FDR) decreased from 0.61 to 0.41. These spatial gradients in climatic drivers accounted for significant gradients in modelled efficiencies: median transpiration WUE (WUEB/T) increased southwards at a rate of 2.6% per degree latitude and median RUE increased southwards at a rate of 1.1% per degree latitude. Modelled and empirical data confirmed previously established relationships between WUEB/T and VPD, and between RUE and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and FDR. Our analysis also revealed a non-causal inverse relationship between VPD and radiation-use efficiency, and a previously unnoticed causal positive relationship between FDR and water-use efficiency. Grain yield (range 1-7 t/ha) measured in field experiments across South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland (n = 55) was unrelated to the photothermal quotient (Pq = PAR/T) around anthesis, but was significantly associated (r2 = 0.41, P < 0.0001) with newly developed climatic index: a normalised photothermal quotient (NPq = Pq . FDR/VPD). This highlights the importance of diffuse radiation and vapour pressure deficit as sources of variation in yield in eastern Australia. Specific experiments designed to uncouple VPD and FDR and more mechanistic crop models might be required to further disentangle the relationships between efficiencies and climate drivers.

The limit to wheat water-use efficiency in eastern Australia. II. Influence of rainfall patterns

We investigated the influence of rainfall patterns on the water-use efficiency of wheat in a transect between Horsham (36°S) and Emerald (23°S) in eastern Australia. Water-use efficiency was defined in terms of biomass and transpiration, WUEB/T, and grain yield and evapotranspiration, WUEY/ET. Our working hypothesis is that latitudinal trends in WUEY/ET of water-limited crops are the complex result of southward increasing WUEB/T and soil evaporation, and season-dependent trends in harvest index. Our approach included: (a) analysis of long-term records to establish latitudinal gradients of amount, seasonality, and size-structure of rainfall; and (b) modelling wheat development, growth, yield, water budget components, and derived variables including WUEB/T and WUEY/ET. Annual median rainfall declined from around 600 mm in northern locations to 380 mm in the south. Median seasonal rain (from sowing to harvest) doubled between Emerald and Horsham, whereas median off-season rainfall (harvest to sowing) ranged from 460 mm at Emerald to 156 mm at Horsham. The contribution of small events (≤ 5 mm) to seasonal rainfall was negligible at Emerald (median 15 mm) and substantial at Horsham (105 mm). Power law coefficients (τ), i.e. the slopes of the regression between size and number of events in a log-log scale, captured the latitudinal gradient characterised by an increasing dominance of small events from north to south during the growing season. Median modelled WUEB/T increased from 46 kg/ha.mm at Emerald to 73 kg/ha.mm at Horsham, in response to decreasing atmospheric demand. Median modelled soil evaporation during the growing season increased from 70 mm at Emerald to 172 mm at Horsham. This was explained by the size-structure of rainfall characterised with parameter τ, rather than by the total amount of rainfall. Median modelled harvest index ranged from 0.25 to 0.34 across locations, and had a season-dependent latitudinal pattern, i.e. it was greater in northern locations in dry seasons in association with wetter soil profiles at sowing. There was a season-dependent latitudinal pattern in modelled WUEY/ET. In drier seasons, high soil evaporation driven by a very strong dominance of small events, and lower harvest index override the putative advantage of low atmospheric demand and associated higher WUEB/T in southern locations, hence the significant southwards decrease in WUEY/ET. In wetter seasons, when large events contribute a significant proportion of seasonal rain, higher WUEB/T in southern locations may translate into high WUEY/ET. Linear boundary functions (French-Schultz type models) accounting for latitudinal gradients in its parameters, slope, and x-intercept, were fitted to scatter-plots of modelled yield v. evapotranspiration. The x-intercept of the model is re-interpreted in terms of rainfall size structure, and the slope or efficiency multiplier is described in terms of the radiation, temperature, and air humidity properties of the environment. Implications for crop management and breeding are discussed.

Rice responses to soil management in a rice-based cropping system in the semi-arid tropics of southern Lombok, Eastern Indonesia

This paper is the first of a series that investigates whether new cropping systems with permanent raised beds (PRBs) or Flat land could be successfully used to increase farmers' incomes from rainfed crops in Lombok in Eastern Indonesia. This paper discusses the rice phase of the cropping system. Low grain yields of dry-seeded rice (Oryza sativa) grown on Flat land on Vertisols in the rainfed region of southern Lombok, Eastern Indonesia, are probably mainly due to (a) erratic rainfall (870-1220 mm/yr), with water often limiting at sensitive growth stages, (b) consistently high temperatures (average maximum - 31 C), and (c) low solar radiation. Farmers are therefore poor, and labour is hard and costly, as all operations are manual. Two replicated field experiments were run at Wakan (annual rainfall = 868 mm) and Kawo (1215 mm) for 3 years (2001/2002 to 2003/2004) on Vertisols in southern Lombok. Dry-seeded rice was grown in 4 treatments with or without manual tillage on (a) PRBs, 1.2 m wide, 200 mm high, separated by furrows 300 mm wide, 200 mill deep, with no rice sown in the well-graded furrows, and (b) well-graded Flat land. Excess surface water was harvested from each treatment and used for irrigation after the vegetative stage of the rice. All operations were manual. There were no differences between treatments in grain yield of rice (mean grain yield = 681 g/m(2)) which could be partly explained by total number of tillers/hill and mean panicle length, but not number of productive tillers/hill, plant height or weight of 1000 grains. When the data from both treatments on PRBs and from both treatments on Flat land, each year at each site were analysed, there were also no differences in grain yield of rice (g/m(2)). When rainfall in the wet season up to harvest was over 1000 mm (Year 2; Wakan, Kawo), or plants were water-stressed during crop establishment (Year 1; Wakan) or during grain-fill (Year 3: Kawo), there were significant differences in grain yield (g/1.5 m(2)) between treatments; generally the grain yield (g/1.5 m(2)) on PRBs with or without tillage was less than that on Flat land with or without tillage. However, when the data from both treatments on PRBs and from both treatments on Flat land, each year at each site, were analysed, the greater grain yield of dry-seeded rice on Flat land (mean yield 1 092 g/1.5 m(2)) than that on PRBs (mean 815 g/1.5 m(2)) was mainly because there were 25% more plants on Flat land. Overall when the data in the 2 outer rows and the 2 inner rows on PRBs were each combined, there was a higher number of productive tillers in the combined outer rows (mean 20.7 tillers/hill) compared with that in the combined inner rows on each PRB (mean 18.2 tillers/hill). However, there were no differences in grain yield between combined rows (mean 142 g/m row). Hence with a gap of 500 mm (the distance between the outer rows of plants on adjacent raised beds), plants did not compensate in grain yield for missing plants in furrows. This suggests that rice (a) also sown in furrows, or (b) sown in 7 rows with narrower row-spacing, or (c) sown in 6 rows with slightly wider row-spacing, and narrower gap between outer rows on adjacent beds, may further increase grain yield (g/1.5 m(2)) in this system of PRBs. The growth and the grain yield (y in g/m(2)) of rainfed rice (with rainfall on-site the only source of water for irrigation) depended mainly on the rainfall (x in mm) in the wet season up to harvest (due either to site or year) with y = 1. 1x -308; r(2) = 0.54; p < 0.005. However, 280 mm (i.e. 32%) of the rainfall was not directly used to produce grain (i.e. when y = 0 g/m(2)). Manual tillage did not affect growth and grain yield of rice (g/m(2); g/1.5 m(2)), either on PRB or on Flat land.

Foods of pigeons and doves in fragmented landscapes of subtropical eastern Australia

We report dietary items of pigeons and doves from northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, obtained from opportunistic sampling of the gut contents of dead birds and observing foraging birds. Most records were from fragmented rainforest habitats, which now support abundant invasive fleshy-fruited plants. The fruits and seeds of invasive plants, particularly Camphor Laurel Cinnamomum camphora, formed the dominant food of several of the species sampled, although in some cases these birds appear to destroy most of the ingested seeds in the gizzard, thereby not contributing to weed dispersal. We also describe the first records of White-headed Pigeons Columba leucomela eating flowers and Brown Cuckoo-Doves Macropygia amboinensis eating flower buds. Camphor Laurel, via flowers, green and ripe fruits, and seeds, provided food for White-headed Pigeons in the Goolmangar district of New South Wales throughout the entire year. Seventy percent of the plant species whose fruits and seeds were recovered from the gut had not previously been recorded as food items for those bird species, illustrating how little is known about the diets of pigeons and doves in fragmented Australian landscapes.