Effect of exposure period on degree of dominance of phosphine resistance in adults of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) and Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Degree of dominance of phosphine resistance was investigated in adults of Rhyzopertha dominica F and Sitophilus oryzae L. Efficacy of the grain fumigant phosphine depends on both concentration and exposure period, which raises the possibility that dominance levels vary with exposure period. New and published data were used to test this possibility in adults of R dominica and S oryzae fumigated for periods of up to 144 h. The concentrations required for control of homozygous resistant and susceptible strains and their F1 hybrids decreased with increasing exposure period. For both species the response lines for the homozygous resistant and susceptible strains and their F1 hybrids were parallel. Therefore, neither dominance level nor resistance factor was affected by exposure period. Resistance was incompletely recessive and the level of dominance, calculated at 50% mortality level, was -0.59 for R dominica and -0.65 for S oryzae. The resistant R dominica strain was 30.9 times more resistant than the susceptible strain, compared with 8.9 times for the resistant S oryzae strain. The results suggest that developing discriminating doses for detecting heterozygote adults of either species will be difficult.

Thrips incidence in green beans and the degree of damage caused

Green bean production accounts for 2.4% of the total value of Australian vegetable production and was Australia's tenth largest vegetable crop in 2008-2009 by value. Australian green bean production is concentrated in Queensland (51%) and Tasmania (34%) where lost productivity as a direct result of insect damage is recognised as a key threat to the industry (AUSVEG, 2011). Green beans attract a wide range of insect pests, with thrips causing the most damage to the harvestable product, the pod. Thrips populations were monitored in green bean crops in the Gatton Research Facility, Lockyer Valley, South-east Queensland, Australia from 2002-2011. Field trials were conducted to identify the thrips species present, to record fluctuation in abundance during the season and assess pod damage as a direct result of thrips. Thirteen species of thrips were recorded during this time on bean plantings, with six dominant species being collected during most of the growing season: Frankliniella occidentalis, F. schultzei, Megalurothrips usitatus, Pseudanaphothrips achaetus, Thrips imaginis and T. tabaci. Thrips numbers ranged from less than one thrips per flower to as high as 5.39 thrips per flower. The highest incidence of thrips presence found in October/November 2008, resulted in 10.74% unmarketable pods due to thrips damage, while the lowest number of thrips recorded in April 2008 caused a productivity loss of 36.65% of pods as a result of thrips damage.

Maximising the contribution of native-range studies towards the identification and prioritisation of weed biocontrol agents

Effective study in the native range to identify potential agents underpins all efforts in classical biological control of weeds. Good agents that demonstrate both a high degree of host specificity and the potential to be damaging are a very limited resource and must therefore be carefully studied and considered. The overseas component is often operationally difficult and expensive but can contribute considerably more than a list of herbivores attacking a particular target. While the principles underlying this foreign component have been understood for some time, recently developed technologies and methods can make very significant contributions to foreign studies. Molecular and genetic characterisations of both target weed and agent organism can be increasingly employed to more accurately define the identity and phylogeny of them. Climate matching and modelling software is now available and can be utilised to better select agents for particular regions of concern. Relational databases can store collection information for analysis and future enquiry while quantification of sampling effort, employment of statistical survey methods and analysis by techniques such as rarefaction curves contribute to efficient and effective searching. Obtaining good and timely identifications for discovered agent organisms is perhaps the most serious issue confronting the modern explorer. The diminishing numbers of specialist taxonomists employed at the major museums while international and national protocols demand higher standards of identity exacerbates the issue. Genetic barcoding may provide a very useful tool to overcome this problem. Native-range work also offers under-exploited opportunities for contributing towards predicting safety, abundance and efficacy of potential agents in their target environment.

Role of Diadegma semiclausum (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in controlling Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae): Cage exclusion experiments and direct observation

We evaluated the role of the larval parasitoid, Diadegma semiclausum Hellén (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), in controlling Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) by cage exclusion experiments and direct field observation during the winter season in southern Queensland, Australia. The cage exclusion experiment involved uncaged, open cage and closed cage treatments. A higher percentage (54-83%) of P. xylostella larvae on sentinel plants were lost in the uncaged treatment than the closed (4-9%) or open cage treatments (11-29%). Of the larvae that remained in the uncaged treatment, 72-94% were parasitized by D. semiclausum, much higher than that in the open cage treatment (8-37% in first trial, and 38-63% in second trial). Direct observations showed a significant aggregation response of the field D. semiclausum populations to high host density plants in an experimental plot and to high host density plots that were artificially set-up near to the parasitoid source fields. The degree of aggregation varied in response to habitat quality of the parasitoid source field and scales of the manipulated host patches. As a result, density-dependence in the pattern of parasitism may depend on the relative degree of aggregation of the parasitoid population at a particular scale. A high degree of aggregation seems to be necessary to generate density-dependent parasitism by D. semiclausum. Integration of the cage exclusion experiment and direct observation demonstrated the active and dominant role of this parasitoid in controlling P. xylostella in the winter season. A biologically based IPM strategy, which incorporates the use of D. semiclausum with Bt, is suggested for the management of P. xylostella in seasons or regions with a mild temperature.

Getting value out of your sensory testing - the difference from control test

Non-parametric difference tests such as triangle and duo-trio tests traditionally are used to establish differences or similarities between products. However they only supply the researcher with partial answers and often further testing is required to establish the nature, size and direction of differences. This paper looks at the advantages of the difference from control (DFC) test (also known as degree of difference test) and discusses appropriate applications of the test. The scope and principle of the test, panel composition and analysis of results are presented with the aid of suitable examples. Two of the major uses of the DFC test are in quality control and shelf-life testing. The role DFC takes in these areas and the use of other tests to complement the testing is discussed. Controls or standards are important in both these areas and the use of standard products, mental and written standards and blind controls are highlighted. The DFC test has applications in products where the duo-trio and triangle tests cannot be used because of the normal heterogeneity of the product. While the DFC test is a simple difference test it can be structured to give the researcher more valuable data and scope to make informed decisions about their product.

Effects of severity of threshing damage on seed quality of Gatton panic Panicum maximum)

Different degrees of severity of threshing were imposed during combine-harvesting of seed of Gatton panic, a cultivar of Panicum maximum , to determine effects of degree of threshing damage on subsequent properties of seed. Threshing cylinder peripheral speeds and concave clearances covering the normal range employed commercially were varied experimentally in the harvest of 2 crops grown in north Queensland. Harvested seed was dried and cleaned, then stored under ambient conditions. The extent of physical damage was measured, and samples were tested at intervals for viability, germination, dormancy and seedling emergence from soil in a glasshouse and in the field over the 2 seasons following harvest. Physical damage increased as peripheral rotor speed rose and (though less markedly) as concave clearance was reduced. As the level of damage increased, viability was progressively reduced, life expectancy was shortened, and dormancy was broken. When the consequences were measured as seedling emergence from soil, the adverse effects on viability tended to cancel out the benefits of dormancy-breaking, leaving few net differences attributable to the degree of threshing severity. We concluded that there would be no value in trying to manipulate the quality of seed produced for normal commercial use through choice of cylinder settings, but that deliberate light or heavy threshing could benefit special-purpose seed, destined, respectively, for long-term storage or immediate use.

Robustness of NIR calibrations for assessing fruit quality

Predictive models based on near infra-red spectroscopy for the assessment of fruit internal quality attributes must exhibit a degree of robustness across the parameters of variety, district and time to be of practical use in fruit grading. At the time this thesis was initiated, while there were a number of published reports on the development of near infra-red based calibration models for the assessment of internal quality attributes of intact fruit, there were no reports of the reliability ("robustness") of such models across time, cultivars or growing regions. As existing published reports varied in instrumentation employed, a re-analysis of existing data was not possible. An instrument platform, based on partial transmittance optics, a halogen light source and (Zeiss MMS 1) detector operating in the short wavelength near infra-red region was developed for use in the assessment of intact fruit. This platform was used to assess populations of macadamia kernels, melons and mandarin fruit for total soluble solids, dry matter and oil concentration. Calibration procedures were optimised and robustness assessed across growing areas, time of harvest, season and variety. In general, global modified partial least squares regression (MPLS) calibration models based on derivatised absorbance data were better than either multiple linear regression or `local' MPLS models in the prediction of independent validation populations . Robustness was most affected by growing season, relative to the growing district or variety . Various calibration updating procedures were evaluated in terms of calibration robustness. Random selection of samples from the validation population for addition to the calibration population was equivalent to or better than other methods of sample addition (methods based on the Mahalanobis distance of samples from either the centroid of the population or neighbourhood samples). In these exercises the global Mahalanobis distance (GH) was calculated using the scores and loadings from the calibration population on the independent validation population. In practice, it is recommended that model predictive performance be monitored in terms of predicted sample GH, with model updating using as few as 10 samples from the new population undertaken when the average GH value exceeds 1 .0 .

Towards the development of a Cavendish banana resistant to race 4 of fusarium wilt: gamma irradiation of micropropagated Dwarf Parfitt (Musa spp., AAA group, Cavendish subgroup)

'Dwarf parfitt', an extra-dwarf Cavendish cultivar with resistance to subtropical race 4 fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense 9Foc), was gamma irradiated at a dose of 20 Gy and putative mutants were recovered with improved agronomic characteristics. Further screening of putative mutants for improved yield and fruit size, as well as a degree of resistence to fusarium wilt, led to the selection of a line (DPM25) with improved productivity when grown on soils infested with subtropical race 4 Foc. DPM25 was equal to the industry standard, 'Williams', in every agronomic trait measured and it consistently showed a lower incidence of fusarium wilt. Further improvement of field resistance to race 4 Foc is needed in DPM25 and further cycles of mutation induction and selction is an option discussed.

Concentration of pineapple juice by reverse osmosis

Queensland pineapple production for the year ending 31 March, 1986, was 142000 t (ABS 1988). Pineapple juice provides the major processing outlet, accounting for about 70% of the State's fruit juice output. Most juice is concentrated by vacuum evaportion to reduce storage and transport costs. In recent years, reverse osmosis (R.O.) has found increasing application for concentrating food liquids, particularly dairy products (Schmidt, 1987). Advantages include lower energy consumption and better product quality retention. There have been a number of publications on fruit juice concentration by R.O. These have included apple juice (Sheu and Wiley 1984; Chua et al 1987; Paulson 1985), orange juice (Papanicolaou et al 1984), mandarin juice (Fukutani and Ogawa 1983, tomato juice (Robe 1983; Watanabe 1982; Gheradi et al 1986), grapefruit and lemon juices (Braddock et al 1988). However, information on pineapple juice concentration by R.O. is lacking. The aim of this research was to measure the effects of juice pre-treatment, operating temperature, membrane type, flow rate, pressure and degree of concentration on pineapple juice R.O.

Chlorophyll fluorescence measures of seagrasses Halophila ovalis and Zostera capricorni reveal differences in response to experimental shading

In coastal waters and estuaries, seagrass meadows are often subject to light deprivation over short time scales (days to weeks) in response to increased turbidity from anthropogenic disturbances. Seagrasses may exhibit negative physiological responses to light deprivation and suffer stress, or tolerate such stresses through photo-adaptation of physiological processes allowing more efficient use of low light. Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) fluorometery has been used to rapidly assess changes in photosynthetic responses along in situ gradients in light. In this study, however, light is experimentally manipulated in the field to examine the photosynthesis of Halophila ovalis and Zostera capricorni. We aimed to evaluate the tolerance of these seagrasses to short-term light reductions. The seagrasses were subject to four light treatments, 0, 5, 60, and 90% shading, for a period of 14 days. In both species, as shading increased the photosynthetic variables significantly (P < 0.05) decreased by up to 40% for maximum electron transport rates (ETRmax) and 70% for saturating irradiances (Ek). Photosynthetic efficiencies (a) and effective quantum yields (ΔF/Fm′ ) increased significantly (P < 0.05), in both species, for 90% shaded plants compared with 0% shaded plants. H. ovalis was more sensitive to 90% shading than Z. capricorni, showing greater reductions in ETR max, indicative of a reduced photosynthetic capacity. An increase in Ek, Fm′ and ΔF/Fm′ for H. ovalis and Z. capricorni under 90% shading suggested an increase in photochemical efficiency and a more efficient use of low-photon flux, consistent with photo-acclimation to shading. Similar responses were found along a depth gradient from 0 to10 m, where depth related changes in ETRmax and Ek in H. ovalis implied a strong difference of irradiance history between depths of 0 and 5-10 m. The results suggest that H. ovalis is more vulnerable to light deprivation than Z. capricorni and that H. ovalis, at depths of 5-10 m, would be more vulnerable to light deprivation than intertidal populations. Both species showed a strong degree of photo-adaptation to light manipulation that may enable them to tolerate and adapt to short-term reductions in light. These consistent responses to changes in light suggest that photosynthetic variables can be used to rapidly assess the status of seagrasses when subjected to sudden and prolonged periods of reduced light

Genetic Impacts of the Hull on Barley Grain Quality

Barley hull plays an important role in malt and feed quality and processing. In this study we measured the variation in hull con-tent along with other grain quality traits namely, kernel discolouration and degree of pre-harvest sprouting, in a single map-ping population. There were significant (p < 0.05) genetic as well as environment effects. In addition, heritability was calculated for hull content to be 29% and 47% for two years’ data. From the analysis, major QTL markers were identified in con-trolling the expression of hull content on chromosomes 2 (2H), and 6 (6H) with significant (P < 0.05) LOD scores of 5.4 and 3.46 respectively. Minor QTLs were identified on 1 (7H), 4 (4H), 5 (1H) and 7 (5H). The region at marker Bmac310 on 4(4H) could be associated with dormancy gene SD4. A number of the QTLs also coincided with regions for either kernel discolouration or preharvest sprouting resistance (dormancy). The results indicate that variation exists for hull content, which is influenced by both growing environment as well as genetically, although the genetic variance explained less than half of the total variance. Further, hull content also impacts on other grain quality attributes including dormancy, sprouting resistance and kernel appearance.

Antibody response against endogenous stages of an attenuated strain of Eimeria tenella

The application of attenuated vaccines for the prevention of chicken coccidiosis has increased exponentially in recent years. In Eimeria infections, protective immunity is thought to rely on a strong cell mediated response with antibodies supposedly playing a minor role. However, under certain conditions antibodies seem to be significant in protection. Furthermore, antibodies could be useful for monitoring natural exposure of flocks to Eimeria spp. and for monitoring the infectivity of live vaccines. Our objective was to investigate the chicken antibody response to the different parasite lifecycle stages following infection with an attenuated strain of Eimeria tenella. Western blotting analysis of parasite antigens prepared from the lining of caeca infected with the attenuated strain of E. tenella revealed two dominant antigens of 32 and 34 kDa, apparently associated with trophozoites and merozoites that were present at high concentrations between 84 and 132 h post-infection. When cryosections of caeca infected with E. tenella were probed with IgY purified from immune birds the most intense reaction was observed with the asexual stages. Western blotting analysis of proteins of purified sporozoites and third generation merozoites and absorption of stage-specific antibodies from sera suggested that a large proportion of antigens is shared by the two stages. The time-courses of the antibody response to sporozoite and merozoite antigens were similar but varied depending on the inoculation regime and the degree of oocyst recirculation.

Validation of a Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Detection of Babesia bigemina Antibodies in Cattle

A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) based on a broadly conserved, species-specific, B-cell epitope within the C terminus of Babesia bigemina rhoptry-associated protein 1a was validated for international use. Receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed 16% inhibition as the threshold for a negative result, with an associated specificity of 98.3% and sensitivity of 94.7%. Increasing the threshold to 21% increased the specificity to 100% but modestly decreased the sensitivity to 87.2%. By using 21% inhibition, the positive predictive values ranged from 90.7% (10% prevalence) to 100% (95% prevalence) and the negative predictive values ranged from 97.0% (10% prevalence) to 48.2% (95% prevalence). The assay was able to detect serum antibody as early as 7 days after intravenous inoculation. The cELISA was distributed to five different laboratories along with a reference set of 100 defined bovine serum samples, including known positive, known negative, and field samples. The pairwise concordance among the five laboratories ranged from 100% to 97%, and all kappa values were above 0.8, indicating a high degree of reliability. Overall, the cELISA appears to have the attributes necessary for international application.

Laboratory studies on Australian isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae as a biopesticide for the cattle tick Boophilus microplus

Thirty-one isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae were bioassayed against the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus). More than half of the isolates showed a high degree of virulence to ticks. Radial growth curves for growth between 20 °C and 40 °C were obtained for all isolates. This information together with information on virulence will be important for the selection of isolates suitable to kill ticks on the surface of cattle. A biopesticide for cattle ticks must kill ticks rapidly at temperatures within the upper end of most isolates' growth curves. It was also found that the time taken to achieve 100% tick mortality in vitro using a virulent isolate could be halved by applying conidia in a 10% oil emulsion. Scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy were used to investigate and compare the germination and penetration of conidia formulated in aqueous and oil formulations. It was found that conidia in both formulations were able to germinate and produce appressoria on the surface of ticks in less than 11 h. Marked weakness within 26 h, followed by extensive hyphal growth on the cuticle characterised the invasion of ticks by M. anisopliae.

Between-tree variation in fruit quality and fruit mineral concentrations of Hass avocados

Inconsistent internal fruit quality in Hass avocados affects consumer confidence. To determine the influence of individual trees on fruit quality, Hass avocado fruit were harvested from adjacent trees of similar external appearance in 3 commercial orchards in 1998 and 1 orchard in 1999. The trees in each orchard were grown with similar commercial practices and in similar soil types. Within each location, there were significant (P<0.05) differences in the mean ripe fruit quality between trees with respect to fruit body rot severity (mainly anthracnose) with and without cold storage, internal disorders severity due to diffuse discolouration and vascular browning (after cold storage), days to ripen, percentage dry matter, and the percentage of the skin area with purple-black colour when ripe. These effects were also noted in the same orchard in 1999. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in fruit flesh calcium, magnesium, potassium, boron and zinc concentrations between trees. Significant (P<0.05) correlations were observed between average fruit mineral concentrations in each tree (particularly calcium, magnesium and potassium) and body rot severity, percentage dry matter and fruit mass. There was little conclusive evidence that characteristics such as the growth of the non-suberised roots or the degree of scion under- or overgrowth was involved in these tree effects; however, differences between trees with respect to other rootstock characteristics may be involved. The inconsistency of the correlations across sites and years suggested that other factors apart from tree influences could also affect the relationship between fruit minerals and fruit quality.