Enhanced noradrenergic activity in the amygdala contributes to hyperarousal in an animal model of PTSD

Increased activity of the noradrenergic system in the amygdala has been suggested to contribute to the hyperarousal symptoms associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, only two studies have examined the content of noradrenaline or its metabolites in the amygdala of rats previously exposed to traumatic stress showing inconsistent results. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an inescapable foot shock (IFS) procedure 1) on reactivity to novelty in an open-field (as an index of hyperarousal), and 2) on noradrenaline release in the amygdala during an acute stress. To test the role of noradrenaline in amygdala, we also investigated the effects of microinjections of propranolol, a β-adrenoreceptor antagonist, and clenbuterol, a β-adrenoreceptor agonist, into the amygdala of IFS and control animals. Finally, we evaluated the expression of mRNA levels of β-adrenoreceptors (β1 and β2) in the amygdala, the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. Male Wistar rats (3 months) were stereotaxically implanted with bilateral guide cannulae. After recovering from surgery, animals were exposed to IFS (10 shocks, 0.86 mA, and 6 seconds per shock) and seven days later either microdialysis or microinjections were performed in amygdala. Animals exposed to IFS showed a reduced locomotion compared to non-shocked animals during the first 5 minutes in the open-field. In the amygdala, IFS animals showed an enhanced increase of noradrenaline induced by stress compared to control animals. Bilateral microinjections of propranolol (0.5 μg) into the amygdala one hour before testing in the open-field normalized the decreased locomotion observed in IFS animals. On the other hand, bilateral microinjections of clenbuterol (30 ng) into the amygdala of control animals did not change the exploratory activity induced by novelty in the open field. IFS modified the mRNA expression of β1 and β2 adrenoreceptors in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. These results suggest that an increased noradrenergic activity in the amygdala contributes to the expression of hyperarousal in an animal model of PTSD.

La lectura incestuosa de "La vida es sueño"

It has been said so much about "Life is a Dream" that it seems not to be probable to say anything more, but on the other hand there is such a disagreement and plurality concerning the criticism that is related to the work that it looks like there is still so much left to say about it. Being the debate between these two views, our work tries to focus on the consequences that are derived from the analysis of a character who is never appeared on the stage and is barely named along the text. This character is not other but Clorilene. It has been only two times in which her name comes on the scene and that is the reason why the critics have considered appropriated to talk about two different characters. However, there have also been some people who support the idea about these two Clorilene could be the same character, that is the same person. All doubts are left out by contextualizing the subject and taking into account that if Clorilene who is Basiliós sister and the other Clorilene who is Basiliós wife are the same character, then we would be talking that such a coincidence could be incest. So Segismundo would be the son of such incest. On our opinion, there is no need to insist more on the legitimacy of the incestuous reading of "Life is a Dream", so the contributions we count on are enough to be sure about their validity. However, our work takes an enough span to account for the accumulated bibliography about the case, although it is not very numerous, it is useful. The aim of this thesis is not to question the existence of the incest. It would not be a novelty and as we have said before, the incest is there and it works. However, what is still left to do is an exercise of general interpretation about "Life is a Dream" and to analyze to what extend it could be relevant the reason for the incest or if it is not other thing that a word game that the author ventured without much pretension that the "onomastic incest" which Maurice Molho referred to...