More evidence for non-maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA?

Background: A single case of paternal co-transmission ofmitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in humans has been reported so far. Objective: To find potential instances of non-maternal inheritance of mtDNA. Methods: Published medical case studies (of single patients) were searched for irregular mtDNA patterns by comparing the given haplotype information for different clones or tissues with the worldwide mtDNA database as known to date-a method that has proved robust and reliable for the detection of flawed mtDNA sequence data. Results: More than 20 studies were found reporting clear cut instances with mtDNAs of different ancestries in single individuals. As examples, cases are reviewed from recent published reports which, at face value, may be taken as evidence for paternal inheritance of mtDNA or recombination. Conclusions: Multiple types (or recombinant types) of quite dissimilar mitochondrial DNA from different parts of the known mtDNA phylogeny are often reported in single individuals. From re-analyses and corrigenda of forensic mtDNA data, it is apparent that the phenomenon of mixed or mosaic mtDNA can be ascribed solely to contamination and sample mix up.

Polymorphic EST-SSR markers and their mode of inheritance in Fenneropenaeus chinensis

229 SSRs (simple sequence repeats) were identified among 10,443 ESTs (expressed sequence tags) of Chinese shrimp (Fenneropenaeus chinensis). The average density of SSRs was one SSR per 19.1 kb of EST sequence screened. The dinucleotide repeats appeared to be the most abundant SSRs detected. Nine EST-SSR markers were detected polymorphisms of the thirty SSR primer pairs derived from F chinensis ESTs. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 5 to 15, with an average of 9.1 alleles per locus. The observed heterozygosity of nine loci ranged from 0.47 to 0.87. These loci were used successfully for pedigree analysis in three families of Fenneropenaeus chinensis. Two of the nine microsatellite loci showed the existence of null alleles. Assuming the existence of null alleles at Fc07 and Fc14 loci, the allelic inheritance mode of the EST-SSR DNA markers (Fc04, Fc06, Fc07, Fc10, Fc14, Fc18, Fc22, Fc24, and Fc27) was consistent with Mendelian segregation. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Chromosome inheritance in triploid Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas thunberg

Reproduction and chromosome inheritance in triploid Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg) were studied in diploid female x triploid male (DT) and reciprocal (TD) crosses. Relative fecundity of triploid females was 13.4% of normal diploids. Cumulative survival from fertilized eggs to spat stage was 0.007% for DT crosses and 0.314% for TD crosses. Chromosome number analysis was conducted on surviving progeny from DT and TD crosses at 1 and 4 years of age. At Year 1, oysters from DT crosses consisted of 15% diploids (2n = 20) and 85% aneuploids. In contrast, oysters from TD crosses consisted of 57.2% diploids, 30.9% triploids (3n = 30) and only 11.9% aneuploids, suggesting that triploid females produced more euploid gametes and viable progeny than triploid males. Viable aneuploid chromosome numbers included 2n + 1, 2n + 2, 2n + 3, 3n - 2 and 3n - 1. There was little change over time in the overall frequency of diploids, triploids and aneuploids. Among aneuploids, oysters with 2n + 3 and 3n-2 chromosomes were observed at Year 1, but absent at Year 4. Triploid progeny were significantly larger than diploids by 79% in whole body weight and 98% in meat weight at 4 years of age. Aneuploids were significantly smaller than normal diploids. This study suggests that triploid Pacific oyster is not completely sterile and cannot offer complete containment of cultured populations.

Inheritance of 15 microsatellites in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas: segregation and null allele identification for linkage analysis

Microsatellites were screened in a backcross family of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. Fifteen microsatellite loci were distinguishable and polymorphic with 6 types of allele-combinations. Null alleles were detected in 46.7% of loci, accounting for 11.7% of the total alleles. Four loci did not segregate in Mendelian Ratios. Three linkage groups were identified among 7 of the 15 segregating loci. Fluorescence-based automated capillary electrophoresis (ABI 310 Genetic Analyzer) that used to detect the microsatellite loci, has been proved a fast, precise, and reliable method in microsatellite genotyping.

杉木生殖生物学特性的研究

本文就杉木大小孢子、雌雄配子体发育、受精作用、新细胞质形成以及细胞质遗传进行较为详细的研究，主要结果如下： 1.2月底小孢子母细胞进入减数分裂，其核相的变化与通常所描述的一致，细胞器集中排列在赤道板附近，其中质体有一重建的过程。当分裂完成时，在四个核之间产生胼胝质壁，细胞器随机分配在四分体中，每个四分孢子含有线粒体、质体、核糖体、高尔基体、脂体、RER和一些液泡。 2.花粉外壁的形成开始于四分体。颗粒状外壁外层和纤维状的原外壁几乎同时产生，具有三层结构的片层状外壁内层的形成晚于外壁外层。初期外壁外层的物质由小孢子和绒毡层共同提供，后期则主要由绒毡层形成的乌氏体所叠加;外壁内层则由小孢子本身分泌的物质形成，在液泡化之前厚度及数目达到最大，片层之间存在广泛的交叉和融合。3月底花粉成熟，花粉壁由颗粒状外层、片层结构的外壁内层和厚的纤维状内壁所组成，在喙处只有一层外壁内层和内壁。各种细胞器的活动在四分体及游离小孢子时期最为活跃。 3.绒毡层的变化与小孢子的发育密切相关，前者具有发生、发展和解体的过程。期间绒毡层分泌的圆球体在结构上有所不同，减数分裂时为中间电子密度深、外围浅的圆球体结构;四分体及游离小孢子时为中间电子密度浅、外围沉积有孢粉素的乌氏体;成熟花粉时为星芒状的乌氏体，它们共同形成花粉的我壁。绒毡层细胞中的细胞器也经历一个变化过程，造粉体的含量在四分体时达到高潮，在小孢子液泡期时基本消耗殆尽并解体;大量的粗糙内质网成零分布在质膜处，并与质膜走向平行。绒毡层解体时出现特殊的现象，具多个由多层膜组成的吞噬泡，并成堆分布，RER和线粒体为最后解体的细胞器。绒毡层外切向面的周绒毡层膜由两层膜组成，其上分布有大量的孢粉素和乌氏体。 4.萌发的花粉管4月底穿过珠心顶端，内含两个不育核和一精原细胞，不育核分布在具有淀粉、脂滴、线粒体和RER的原花粉细胞质中，位于精原细胞之前，这种关系保持到受精前。6月初精原细胞体积迅速增加到最大，相应的细胞质也发生变化，以线粒体为主的细胞质中出现少量质体，线粒体再资分化，细胞质中含有大量的可溶性多糖。 5.受精前，精原细胞分裂产生两个大小和形状相同的精细胞，彼此之间由胞间连丝的横壁联系在一起，并被原花粉细胞质所包被。精细胞中质体和淀粉粒的数量大幅度增加。精核们于细胞的中央，细胞质呈现区域分布的特点，据所含细胞器的差别，人核膜向外，细胞质分为五层，中间两层最为突出，即线粒体层和淀粉层，其间有大量核糖体的存在，线粒体层位于淀粉层的里面。这两层占据精细胞的大部分体积。 6.雌配子体游离核时期持续时间较长，近两个月，而从细胞化到卵细胞成熟则非常迅速，大约只需两周左右的时间。进一步发育，颈卵器中的液泡减少，细胞质变浓。初期少量的质体和淀粉粒被膨大的内质网片段和小泡的融合而与细胞质相隔，并最终退化。小内含物增加，亲锇颗粒出现。 7.成熟的卵细胞中具有大量各种形式的小内含物，细胞质被平行和环形的内质网所分隔。核膜外围有一圈疏松排列的亲锇颗粒，核仁变为多个基本为圆形的小核仁。没有质体的存在，大量脱分化的线粒体和核糖体集中分布在卵核的下部。 8.受精作用主要发生在6.9-6.16日期间，雄性细胞质始终伴随着精核向卵核移动，当两核接近时，朝向精核－面的卵核形成凹陷内，性细胞质覆盖在精核之上并最终包围两性核，而把雌性细胞质排除在外。因此，受精卵周围的胞质主要为由质体、线粒体和核糖体组成的新细胞质，且线粒体和质体的分布形式与精细胞的相同，即线粒体在里层，质体在外层。 9.融合后的合子核随即进行有丝分裂，形成两个原胚游离核，两个游离核同步分裂，并向基部移动，游离核始终分布在新细胞质中。八游离核时形成细胞壁，原胚属标准型。胚细胞中基本不含淀粉粒，具有大量的线粒体、高尔基体、RER和原质体。原胚之上的卵细胞质退化解体。杉木的质体和线粒体均为父本遗传。 10.幼胚的胚性细胞和胚柄细胞具有明显的差别，主要表现在质体的存在形式和高尔基体的数量上。胚性细胞中，原质体分布在核周围，大量的RER、高尔基体和线粒体平行于胚的走向;位于其上的胚柄细胞则含有淀粉粒和特别多的高尔基体。具简单多胚和裂生多胚，胚柄系统发达，7月底出现根原始细胞，8月中旬胚分化完成，具有两个子叶。

水松生殖生物学的研究

本文运用组织化学技术、透射电镜技术，就水松雌雄配子体发育，精卵细胞形成和结构，受精作用以及细胞质遗传等问题进行了较为详细的研究。主要结果如下： 1 绒毡层发育与雄配子体发育，尤其与花粉外壁的形成关系密切。绒毡层组织在小孢子母细胞和减数分裂时期达到发育高峰。四分体阶段和游离小孢子发育前期，绒毡层细胞中内质网、脂体、线粒体非常活跃，参与孢粉素和乌氏体的形成和转移。乌氏体有球形、星芒状两种类型，它们主要参与花粉外壁内层和外壁外层的建成。小孢子发育后期绒毡层细胞开始明显解体。 2 减数分裂阶段，质体、线粒俺等细胞器和造粉体随细胞核和染色体的变化，出现有规律的迁移现象。减数分裂前期，细胞核移到细胞的一侧;各种细胞器和造粉体迁移到细胞的另一侧，并随染色体移向细胞中部而转移到细胞质周缘。减数分裂中期l和后期，各种细胞器和造粉体汇聚在赤道板丙侧分布。说明细胞质中微管系统在起调节作用。 3 花粉壁形成开始于四分体时期。片层状结构的外壁内层随纤维状原外壁的出现雨形成。外壁外层和花粉内壁在小孢子发育中期几乎同时形成。小孢子细胞和绒毡层组织共同参与了外壁内层和外壁外层孢粉素物质的合成、转运。水松成熟花粉由孢粉素组成的外壁外层、片层状结构的外壁内层及有分层状结构的内壁构成。 4 传粉到受精间隔要四个月左右的时间。六月上旬，花粉管和精原细胞抵达颈卵器上部。精原细胞富含淀粉粒、质体、线粒体和异形泡并分区分布。受精前，精原细胞分裂形成两个大小和形状相同豹精细胞。精细胞含有质体、线粒体和异型泡等细胞器。 5 雌配子体游离核持续时间长，从颈卵器原始细胞形成到卵细胞发育成熟所需时间较短。复合颈卵器结构，颈细胞和套层细胞形态结构特殊。中央细胞不经分裂，直接行使卵细胞的功能。 6 成熟卵细胞中除弋量各种形式的内含物外，细胞质被庞大的内质网包围、分割，形成网膜系统。质体、淀粉等细胞器被包含成大内含物。在卵核周围细胞质中没有发现质体和发育完好的线粒体存在。 7 受精作用发生在六月十日左右。雌雄核融合时，朝向精核一面的卵核形成凹陷，精核陷入其中与卵核进一步融合。精卵融合可发生在颈卵器的上部、中部、下部甚至底部。有旋转受精、两个精核同时与一个卵核受精及多卵细胞现象等。 8 新细胞质主要为雄性细胞质成分。合子转移到颈卵器基部分裂，形成原胚游离核。合子、新细胞质和游离核周围淀粉鞘显著。八游离核时期形成细胞壁，新细胞质和淀粉粒转移到原胚细胞中。 9 水松的质体和线粒体为父系遗传。

葡萄果皮花色苷构成特点、遗传规律及其在果实成熟过程中的变化

通过利用高效液相色谱-质谱联用技术，研究110 个不同基因型（包括3 个种和5 个种间杂种）葡萄品种的花色苷含量和成分特点。在所有品种中，最多鉴定出29 种花色苷。对葡萄的花色苷总量来说，一般情况下，欧亚种和欧美杂交种的花色苷含量较低，而野生种和砧木品种显著高于其它的种间杂种；在同一个种内，酿酒品种高于鲜食品种；在大多数高花色苷含量的种质中，二甲基花翠素类花色苷是主要的花色苷，而在低总花色苷量的品种，花青素类和花翠素类花色苷是主要的成分。此外，在欧亚种葡萄中，仅检测到单糖苷类花色苷，而在其它葡萄种质中，既有单糖苷花色苷又有双糖苷花色苷。在欧亚鲜食葡萄中，Pn-3-glucoside 是主要的花色苷，而在欧亚酿酒葡萄中，Mv-3-glucoside 是主要的花色苷。通过主成分分析，最终根据花色苷总量的不同和单、双糖苷含量的不同，110 个品种在散点图中被明显的分成3 部分。 通过连续两年调查3 个欧亚鲜食葡萄杂交组合的亲本和后代的花色苷含量来分析花色苷的遗传特点。共鉴定出16 种花色苷，且均为单糖苷类。母本中各花色苷的比例决定了后代中花色苷含量的比例，但是后代中花色苷的绝对含量不受亲本影响。不论亲本还是后代中，Peonidin 3-O-glucoside 和Malvidin3-O-glucoside 都是含量最高的花色苷。花色苷的有或无是寡基因控制的质量性状，而含量的多少是多基因控制的数量性状。通过主成分分析可以得知：在杂交后代中， peonidin 3-O-glucoside, malvidin 3-O-glucoside, delphinidin3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, petunidin 3-O-glucoside, peonidin3-O-(6-O-coumaryl)-glucoside 和malvidin 3-O-(6-O-coumaryl)-glucoside 是影响果皮中花色苷总量的主要种类。花色苷的含量是一种高广义遗传力的性状，而且这种性状在两年间是稳定的（0.65-0.98）。 5 个不同基因型葡萄品种在成熟过程中果实品质的变化也被研究。始熟期开始后，果粒重量继续增加，果粒较大的鲜食品种增长很慢，而果粒较小的制汁和酿酒品种增长幅度很大；果实内两种主要的糖（葡萄糖和果糖）开始快速上升，且在整个成熟过程中保持1：1；有机酸的含量开始快速下降，苹果酸下降的幅度大于酒石酸。多酚物质在果实始熟期也发生巨大变化，花色苷快速积累。 ‘北紫’和‘梅鹿辄’中的花色苷在成熟前1-2 周达到最大值，‘黑奥林’、‘康可’和‘北醇’在整个成熟过程中花色苷一直增加；对非花色苷类多酚来说，‘黑奥林’和‘梅鹿辄’在果实成熟过程中一直增加，而在另3 个品种中是下降的；花色苷之间以及与黄酮醇之间成正相关，花色苷和酚酸成负相关关系，酚酸和黄酮醇也成负相关关系，黄烷醇物质之间以及与其它类黄酮物质之间成负相关关系。

Can the occurrence of rare insertion/deletion polymorphisms in human mtDNA be verified from phylogeny?

Due to its specific characteristics, such as maternal inheritance and absence of recombination, each mtDNA belongs to certain monophyletic clade in the rooted mtDNA tree (haplogroup) according to the mutations it harbors. Rare mutation (excluding parallel mutation) occurring at multiple times in different haplogroups could thus be a potential reading error according to the mtDNA phylogeny. This experience has been widely used in double-checking the credibility of the rare mutations in human mtDNA sequences. However, no test has been performed so far for the feasibility of applying this strategy to the rare insertion/deletion (indel) events in mtDNA sequences. In this study, we attempted to relate the rare indels in mtDNAs to their haplogroup status in a total of 2352 individuals from 50 populations in China. Our results show that the insertion of A at position 16259 is restricted to a subclade of haplogroup C and can be verified. The other indel polymorphisms, which occur in the repeat of the deleted or inserted nucleotide(s), may not be distinguished from phantom mutations from a phylogenetic point of view. Independently and multiply sequencing the fragment with the indel is the best and the most reliable way for confirmation.

Gynogenesis and sex determination in large-scale loach Paramisgurnus dabryanus (Sauvage)

Gynogenesis was induced using heterologous sperms in large-scale loach, Paramisgurnus dabryanus (Sauvage), in which a ZW/ZZ sex determination was previously proposed. Three microsatellite loci were used to monitor exclusive maternal inheritance of gynogenetic progenies. The results showed that high percentages of meiogynogens were produced at 4 min post-fertilization and mitogynogens were produced at 18 min post-fertilization by heat shocks, while meiotic gynogenesis was induced by cold shocks within a wide period and high heterozygosity was even observed in gynogens produced at 24 min post-fertilization. The sex ratios of the F, progenies in three gynogenetic families were significantly deviated from 1: 1 expectation with a female bias in two families and a male bias in one family (P < 0.05), and the other four gynogenetic families showed approximate 1:1 sex ratios. Moreover, the self-mating between gynogenetic F, progenies and mating between gynogenetic F, progenies and normal individuals produced all-female progenies or identical proportions of females and males. The data of sex ratios generally confirmed that the sex determination in large-scale loach was determined by the putative ZW/ZZ system, and the possible reasons causing the biased sex ratios are discussed.

Microsatellites assessment of Chinese sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis Gray) genetic variability

Four microsatellites were used to examine the genetic variability of the spawning stocks of Chinese sturgeon, Acipenser sinensis, from the Yangtze River sampled over a 3-year period (1999-2001). Within 60 individuals, a total of 28 alleles were detected over four polymorphic microsatellite loci. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 4 to 15, with an average allele number of 7. The number of genotypes per locus ranged from 6 to 41. The genetic diversity of four microsatellite loci varied from 0.34 to 0.67, with an average value of 0.54. For the four microsatellite loci, the deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was mainly due to null alleles. The mean number of alleles per locus and the mean heterozygosity were lower than the average values known for anadromous fishes. Fish were clustered according to their microsatellite characteristics using an unsupervised 'Artificial Neural Networks' method entitled 'Self-organizing Map'. The results revealed no significant genetic differentiation considering genetic distance among samples collected during different years. Lack of heterogeneity among different annual groups of spawning stocks was explained by the complex age structure (from 8 to 27 years for males and 12 to 35 years for females) of Chinese sturgeon, leading to formulate an hypothesis about the maintenance of genetic diversity and stability in long-lived animals.

Karyotypic diversity in polyploid gibel carp, Carassius auratus gibelio Bloch

Polyploid gibel carp, Carassius auratus gibelio, is an excellent model system for evolutionary genetics owing to its specific genetic background and reproductive modes. Comparative karyotype studies were performed in three cultured clones, one artificially manipulated group, and one mated group between two clones. Both the clones A and P had 156 chromosomes in their karyotypes, with 36 metacentric, 54 submetacentric, 36 subtelocentric, 24 acrocentric, and six small chromosomes. The karyotype of clone D contained 162 chromosomes, with 42 metacentric, 54 submetacentric, 36 subtelocentric, 24 acrocentric, and six small chromosomes. All the three clones had six small chromosomes in common. Group G, being originated from the clone D by artificial manipulation, showed supernumerary microchromosomes or chromosomal fragments, in addition to the normal chromosome complement that was identical to the clone D. The offspring from mating between clones D and A had 159 chromosomes. Comparing with the clone A, the DA offspring showed three extra metacentric chromosomes. In addition, variable RAPD fingerprint patterns and unusual SCAR marker inheritance were, respectively, detected among individuals of artificial group G and in the mated DA offspring. Both the chromosome and molecular findings suggest that genome reshuffling might have occurred by manipulation or mating of the clones.

Development of polymorphic EST markers in Penaeus monodon: applications in penaeid genetics

The objective of this study was to develop type I markers for genome mapping and other genetic studies of Penaeus monodon. Primers were designed based on expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from a P monodon cephalothorax cDNA library to amplify 100-300 bp products. 34 of the primer pairs successfully amplified PCR products from genomic DNA. Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis showed that similar to 30% of the ESTs tested exhibit polymorphism in a test panel of P monodon individuals. Mendelian inheritance of the EST-derived markers has been established in two international reference mapping families of P monodon, and mapping of these markers is in progress. Some ESTs were successfully amplified from other Penaeus species (P. chinensis, P japonicus and P vannamei), indicating that the markers are applicable in cross-species comparison. Two populations of P. japonicus could be differentiated using one of the ESTS. In conclusion, the polymorphic EST markers developed in this study are applicable in genome mapping and population genetic studies of penaeid shrimp. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Genetic diversity among different clones of the gynogenetic silver crucian carp, Carassius auratus gibelio, revealed by transferrin and isozyme markers

Genetic diversity among four clones (A, D, E, F) of gynogenetic silver crucian carp was studied using transferrin and isozymes in the blood as markers. Of the five proteins investigated, three (transferrin, esterase and superoxide dismutase) indicated polymorphism and eight polymorphic loci were detected. These loci were probably encoded by codominant alleles and their inheritance patterns were analyzed. Intraclonal homogeneity and interclonal heterogeneity were observed in these clones, which allowed us to infer the clonal nature and evolutionary relationship between them. Clonal diversity in this population of silver crucian carp in China was also compared with data reported from gynogenetic crucian carp in Germany.