Maintenance of Multifemale Social Organization in a Group of Nomascus concolor at Wuliang Mountain, Yunnan, China

Many short-term studies have reported groups of black crested gibbons containing >= 2 adult females (Nomascus concolor). We report the stability of multifemale groups in this species over a period of 6 yr. Our focal group and 2 neighboring groups included 2 breeding females between March 2003 and June 2009. We also habituated 1 multifemale group to observers and present detailed information concerning their social relationships over a 9-mo observation period. We investigated interindividual distances and agonistic behavior among the 5 group members. The spatial relationship between the 3 adult members (1 male, 2 females) formed an equilateral triangle. A subadult male was peripheral to the focal group, while a juvenile male maintained a closer spatial relationship with the adult members. We observed little agonistic behavior among the adult members. The close spatial relationship and lack of high rates of agonistic behavior among females suggest that the benefits of living in a multifemale group were equal to or greater than the costs for both females, given their ecological and social circumstances. The focal group occupied a large home range that was likely to provide sufficient food sources for the 2 females and their offspring. Between March 2003 and June 2009, 1 adult female gave 2 births and the other one gave 1 birth. All individuals in the focal group survived to June 2009. A long-term comparative study focused on females living in multifemale groups and females living in pair-living groups would provide insight into understanding the evolutionary mechanisms of the social system in gibbons.

Social organization and range use in the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus bieti

We studied social organization, behavior, and range use of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Wuyapiya (99 degrees 12'E, 28 degrees 30'N, the People's Republic of China) over 12 months between May 1992 and June 1994. The Wuyapiya band contained greater than or equal to 175 members and had two levels of social organization. At one level, the monkeys formed multifemale, one-male units (OMUs) similar to those of many other colobines. At another level, 15 to 18 OMUs traveled together in a cohesive band. Unlike the bands of other species of Rhinopithecus, the Wuyapiya band of R. bieti did not show seasonal fission-fusion, although some social behavior, such as male-male aggression, was seasonal. With regard to range use, the Wuyapiya band had a large home range and long daily travel distances compared with other colobines. Minimum range size in 1 year at Wuyapiya is 16.25 km(2), although there is no asymptote for range size as a function of observation time. Range size for the Wuyapiya band is 25.25 km(2) over the 2-year study and appeared to cover 100 km(2) between 1985 and 1994. The primary food of R. bieti at Wuyapiya is lichens, which are ubiquitous in fir frees. The multitiered social organization of R. bieti appears to result from the interaction of food resource characters with the forces of mate competition, with band sizes based on female responses to the spatial and temporal characteristics of lichens and subdivisions within bands based on male competition for mates.

Social organization of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Deqin, China

Data on social organization of two bands of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) 14 were collected when the monkeys were crossing an open spot at Nanren and Bamei (northwest of Yunnan, China) using a sampling rule where individuals wit

金丝厂黑白仰鼻猴Rhinopithecus bieti 的生境植被、食性、家域和社会组织

在黑白仰鼻猴（Rhinopithecus bieti）分布区南段的金丝厂（99o37’E，26o50’N），野外工作分别于1997年11 – 12月（代表秋季）、1998年4 – 5月（冬春季）、9 – 10月（夏季）进行。我们分别以中点象限法和样地法、粪斑计数法、直接观察法、粪便食物残片计数法收集植被结构、生境利用、猴群年龄-性别构成、食物组成数据。 林带（3200 – 4100 m）有乔木33种，灌木30种，可分为三个群落：1）云冷杉-霉箭竹群落（3300 m 和3500 m海拔样带），相对优势度为针叶树73%，阔叶树27%，箭竹密度10/m2；2）冷杉-玉龙箭竹群落（3700 m海拔样带），针叶树90%，阔叶树10%，箭竹密度2/m2；3）冷杉群落（3900 m海拔样带），针叶树99%，阔叶树1%，无箭竹。不同于该种分布区北部（Kirkpatrick，1996），猴群全年局限于群落1中，海拔3200 – 3650 m，家域面积4.0 km2，全年食物中箭竹叶占59%，阔叶树叶占28%，地衣的比例小于5%，秋季种子残片占9%。生境利用模式主要由食物的时空分布所决定。 猴群有51只个体，成年性比是1 : 3.4（雄 : 雌），成年未成年比为1 : 1.2，暗示其数量在增长中。群体由5个单雄多雌单位组成。这种两层社会组织与Kirkpatrick等（1998）的描述一致。看来，该种OMU-band结构中的OMU代表了亚洲疣猴的系统发生遗产，而大群集结可能是一种低成本反捕食对策，因其主要食物呈均匀分布。

塔城黑白仰鼻猴（Rhinopithecus bieti）的觅食生态学和社会

从 1999 年4 月至2002 年六月间，对黑白仰鼻猴种群(Rhinopithecus bieti ) 的分布和生境状况进行了调查。与十年前的调查结果相比，本次调查新发现了4 个亚种群（指存在生境走廊的若干群体），但有5 个以前存在的群已经消失，现 存猴群数量为13 群，总体数量约为1200-1700 只。从西藏的芒康到云龙的龙马 山，随着海拔的降低，猴群可利用的植被类型也随之多样化。但由于砍伐、放牧、 开矿等因素的影响，猴群生境破碎化程度较高，连接猴群的生境走廊状况极差， 多数猴群孤立分布，并且存在小种群问题，生境走廊的维护和恢复已成为该物种 保护成功与否的关键。种群的总体数量下降了32%（不含4 个新发现的亚种群）， 其中4 群数量下降，4 群持平，1 群有所增长，5 群消失，这不容乐观的状况给 我们保护敲响了警钟。此外，基于以前的研究结果，暗针叶林、针阔混交林和栎 树林均为其适宜生境，夏季高山牧场则是由当地居民为放牧而砍伐、焚烧高海拔 带的暗针叶林而形成的林间空地。我们使用了1997 年的卫星影像和1958 年的航 拍地图来估算适宜生境和夏季高山牧场的面积。结果表明；1）在1997 年，黑白 仰鼻猴的适宜生境面积为4169 km2，夏季高山牧场的面积为1923 km2。2）在近 40 年中，黑白仰鼻猴的适宜生境面积下降了31％（约1887 km2），而夏季高山牧 场的面积则增加了204％（约1291 km2）。3）森林斑块的平均面积从15.6 km2 下降到5.4 km2。此外，夏季高山牧场的面积与当地居民的人口数量增长之间呈 正相关关系 (R2 ≥ 0.53，p < 0.05)。除非当地居民的人口数量增长模式或者传统 的生产生活方式发生改变，这种破碎化趋势将继续下去。 从1999 年三月至2000 年十二月对云南塔城(99o18’E, 27 o36’N, 活动范围在 2,700 – 3700 m asl)的一群黑白仰鼻猴收集了食性和时间预算的数据。通过状态 行为扫描的方式，主要记录了树冠中单雄组食用植物种类—部位。同时用显微镜对每个月的粪便样本进行了显微分析，以此作为食性的补充数据。仰鼻猴食用属 于28 科、42 属的59 种植物，共计90 个食用的植物种类—部位，其中冬季利用 21 个植物种类—部位，春季38 个，夏季39 个，秋季47 个。另一方面，该群年 平均花费日活动时间的35％进食，33％休息，15％移动，13％社会行为。日活 动时间预算分配、摄食不同食物类别的时间、粪便中食物残留物及食用植物种 类―部位的数目存在着季节性变化。食物种类与时间分配之间和之内的相关显然 是为了最大化觅食效率与最小化能量消耗。考虑到来自北面与南面的群的相关报 道，这个种对生境的适应性似乎与其他疣猴没什么区别，并无特化之处。因此， 这个种的最终生存预期要比以前乐观。 我们利用整个塔城猴群沿地面通过开阔地或喝水的机会，使我们能记录野外 种群的大小和组成（如性比等）以及通过分析依次经过个体间的时间间隔以量化 反映社会组织单元之间和之内的空间距离，用统计分析的方式来量化描述社会组 织的模式，发现塔城猴群由9 个单雄单元（OMUs）、5 个多雄单元（MMUs）和2 个全雄单元（AMUs）组成， 单雄单元、多雄单元和全雄单元内的个体分别约占 总数的58％、34％和8％，无论在开阔峡谷地域或水潭旁，单元内的时间间隔显 著短于单元间的时间间隔（开阔峡谷地域：非配对 t 检验，df = 49; p < 0.01， 水潭：非配对t 检验，df = 35; p < 0.01）。 在单雄单元的成年不等性比和成 年雌性与婴猴的比例显著大于多雄单元（开阔峡谷地域：非配对t 检验，df = 40; p < 0.05，水潭：非配对t 检验，df = 16; p < 0.05）。在全雄单元中有大量的 性别不明的未成年个体。此外，加之某些个案描述，论述了多雄单元存在的可能 性及与全雄单元和单雄单元之间的关系。

西藏高原护士工作倦怠特点及组织干预

Studies on job burnout have drawn more and more attentions for clinical nurses, however, investigations on specific nurse sample, those working in the Tibet Plateau, are few. In this study, we evaluated the job burnout of the nurses working in the Tibet Plateau and investigated the influence of organization intervention on the job burnout of nurses. The questionnaires applied in this study included MBI-General Survey and Distributive，Procedural and interactive Justice . The results were as follows, First, certain degree of job burnout undoubtedly exists in the nurse sample working in the Tibet Plateau, although it was not serious in general. The factors, such as age, being soldier or not , weekly working hours and the professional titles, had significant influence on the levels of job burnout in the nurse sample of this study; Secondly, emotional exhaustion was at a higher level for the nurses working in the Tibet Plateau,a high altitude area than in those working in the low altitude area, while it was easier for nurses in the low altitude area to achieve personal accomplishment; Thirdly, a correlation was observed in the organizational justice and job burnout. Organization intervention can alleviate or prevent from the feelings of job burnout by improving the organization justice; Finally, taken together, we thus suggest that prevention is the most effective measure to prevent the onset of job burnout, and an improvement in the social organization and personal skills and attitudes simultaneously are much appreciated.