松杉类植物花粉发育和传粉生物学的研究

本文用光学显微镜结合荧光技术对青扦花粉的发育过程进行了观察;用共聚焦显微镜观察了白扦生长花粉管细胞内的游离Ca2+分布;利用原子力显微镜对雪松和水杉花粉外壁的亚结构进行了研究：用透射电镜、扫描电镜及解剖镜等技术研究了侧柏、北美香柏、红豆杉、粗榧和白皮松的传粉机制，结果如下。 青扦花粉的发育过程与松科其它一些植物花粉的发育模式相似。从小孢子母细胞到成熟花粉约二十天左右。小孢子母细胞进入减数分裂前彼此分开，但在某些部位仍有连接。细胞质内有大量淀粉粒，在减数分裂过程中减少或消失，没有观察到明显的淀粉粒带。减数分裂中的胞质分裂为同时型，四分体为四面体型。小孢子刚从四分体释放出来时，气囊已开始形成，细胞中含大量淀粉粒。随着小孢子的发育，其体积增大，并出现液泡，细胞核移向一侧。小孢子第一次不对称分裂产生一个大的中央细胞和一个小的原叶细胞。中央细胞不久就进行第二次分裂产生精子器原始细胞和第二原叶细胞。原叶细胞形成后，其与中央细胞或精子器原始细胞之间的壁逐渐沉积胼胝质，以后随着原叶细胞的退化，胼胝质壁消失。精子器原始细胞分裂形成管细胞和生殖细胞，生殖细胞在散粉前分裂形成体细胞（精原细胞）和柄细胞（不育细胞）。成熟花粉为5细胞，但两个原叶细胞已退化消失。 白扦花粉在10%蔗糖+0.01%硼酸的液体培养基内培养12小时后开始萌发。在正常生长的花粉管中，其顶端有一个透明区，而透明区后则含有大量的贮藏物质颗粒。在停止生长的花粉管中透明区消失，而整个花粉管顶端也被储藏物质颗粒充满。正常生长的花粉管顶端有一个较高的Ca2+浓度。在停止生长的花粉管内不具有这样一个Ca2+梯度。 雪松和水杉二种花粉外壁中由孢粉素构成的亚结构单位形态相似，均呈颗粒状，但大小略有不同。雪松的长56-99 nm，宽42-74;水杉的长81-118 nm，宽43-98 nm。在雪松中这些亚单位紧密排列组成短棒状或球状的花粉外壁结构单位，再由几个到十几个这样的结构单位组成较大的岛屿状结构。在这些岛屿状结构之间有大小不一的空隙存在，整个花粉外壁由这样一些岛屿状结构交互连接形成。水杉花粉外壁的亚单位排列也较紧密，且有3-10个成群分布的趋势，但各群之间界限不明显。此外，雪松和水杉的花粉外壁亚单位均无螺旋状排列趋势，这一结果倾向于支持Southworth关于花粉外壁亚单位颗粒状并呈网状排列的观点。 白皮松胚珠倒生，其发育过程与松属的其它种相似，成熟胚珠珠孔端具两手臂状结构，有利于接收花粉。花粉具气囊。传粉期间，没有观察到传粉滴产生，但珠心顶端细胞解体形成花粉室。花粉室内可接受一至几个花粉，花粉在花粉室内的位置无明方向性。传粉时，胚珠处于大孢子线细胞时期。花粉在花粉室内萌发形成花粉管进入珠心组织，花粉管在珠心内生长一段时间后停止生长，并于次年春天重新启动生长。离体生长的花粉管顶端常有胼胝质产生，但顶端区域后的花粉管壁上却无胼胝质沉积。 侧柏、北美香柏、红豆杉和粗榧均为直生胚珠。传粉时胚珠产生传粉滴。在红豆杉胚珠发育早期，珠心表面细胞轮廓清晰;而在后期，其珠心表面则形成了一层膜状结构。这层膜状结构在传粉前随珠心细胞的解体而破裂，珠心细胞的降解产物参与了传粉滴形成。在传粉前和传粉期，珠心细胞内含大量的线粒体、内质网、高尔基体和小泡。传粉滴主要由珠心细胞分泌形成。这四种植物的花粉均无气囊，属可湿性花粉。红豆杉和粗榧的花粉水合时，内壁膨胀，外壁开裂。通常情况下，红豆杉花粉的外壁保留在传粉滴的表面，而花粉的其它部分沉入传粉滴内。侧柏和北美香柏的传粉滴授粉后，花粉进入传粉滴导致传粉滴的明显收缩。在侧柏中传粉滴授粉后100分钟内就完全收缩进入珠孔。传粉滴收缩的速率与所授花粉数量和花粉的种类有关。与侧柏亲缘关系较近植物花粉引起传粉滴的收缩速率和侧柏自身花粉引起的传粉滴收缩速率相似;反之，收缩速率变慢。侧柏传粉滴的收缩可能主要是由于花粉减弱胚珠分泌的结果。但授粉不引起红豆杉和粗榧传粉滴的明显收缩。在红豆杉和粗榧中，从授粉到传粉完全收缩需要20-24小时。这两种植物传粉滴的收缩可能主要是蒸发引起的非代谢性过程，与侧柏和美香柏属于不同的传粉滴收缩机制。

Material response and failure mechanism of unidirectional metal matrix composites under impulsive shear loading

The material response and failure mechanism of unidirectional metal matrix composite under impulsive shear loading are investigated in this paper. Both experimental and analytical studies were performed. The shear strength of unidirectional C-f/A356.0 composite and A356.0 aluminum alloy at high strain rate were measured with a modified split Hopkinson torsional bar technique. The results indicated that the carbon fibers did not improve the shear strength of aluminum matrix if the fiber orientation aligned with the shear loading axis. The microscopic inspection of the fractured surface showed a multi-scale zigzag feature which implied a complicated shear failure mechanism in the composite. In addition to testing, the micromechanical stress field in the composite was analyzed by the generalized Eshelby equivalent method (GEEM). The influence of cracking in matrix on the micromechanical stress field was investigated as well. The results showed that the stress distribution in the composite is quite nonhomogeneous and very high shear stress concentrations are found in some regions in the matrix. The high shear stress concentration in the matrix induces tensile cracking at 45 degrees to the shear direction. This in turn aggravates the stress concentration at the fiber/matrix interface and finally leads to a catastrophic failure in the composite. From the correlation between the analysis and experimental results, the shear failure mechanism of unidirectional C-f/A356.0 composite can be elucidated qualitatively.

Effects of heat-treatment processes on the electroless Ni-B coating and its natural aging mechanism

A Ni-B coating was prepared with EN using potassium borohydride reducing agent. The as-plated micro-structure of the coating was confirmed from XRD to be a mixture of amorphous and supersaturated solid solution. Three kinds of phase transformation were observed from the DSC curve. Different from the previous works, the formation of Ni4B3 and Ni2B was found during some transformation processes. The key factors which influence the variation of micro-hardness and micro-structure in deposits are the formation, the size and amount of Ni3B, Ni4B3 and Ni2B. Aging of the deposits treated under some heat treatment conditions occurred at room temperature. Changes of the micro-hardness indicated aging phenomena evidently. the natural aging phenomena are concerned with various kinds of decomposition of borides, especially with Ni4B3 phase. The extent of natural aging depends on the formation and the quantity of Ni(4)B3 and Ni2B.

The Flow Theory of Mechanism-Based Strain Gradient Plasticity

The flow theory of mechanism-based strain gradient (MSG) plasticity is established in this paper following the same multiscale, hierarchical framework for the deformation theory of MSG plasticity in order to connect with the Taylor model in dislocation mechanics. We have used the flow theory of MSG plasticity to study micro-indentation hardness experiments. The difference between deformation and flow theories is vanishingly small, and both agree well with experimental hardness data. We have also used the flow theory of MSG plasticity to investigate stress fields around a stationary mode-I crack tip as well as around a steady state, quasi-statically growing crack tip. At a distance to crack tip much larger than dislocation spacings such that continuum plasticity still applies, the stress level around a stationary crack tip in MSG plasticity is significantly higher than that in classical plasticity. The same conclusion is also established for a steady state, quasi-statically growing crack tip, though only the flow theory can be used because of unloading during crack propagation. This significant stress increase due to strain gradient effect provides a means to explain the experimentally observed cleavage fracture in ductile materials [J. Mater. Res. 9 (1994) 1734, Scripta Metall. Mater. 31 (1994) 1037; Interface Sci. 3(1996) 169].

Mechanism on Progressive Failure of a Faulted Rock Slope Due to Slip-Weakening

Slip-weakening is one of the characteristics of geological materials under certain loadings. Non-uniform rock structure may exist in the vicinity of the slip surface for a rock slope. Some portion of the slip surface may be penetrated but the other not. For the latter case, the crack or the fault surface will undergo shear deformation before it becomes a successive surface under a certain loading. As the slipped portion advances,slip-weakening occurs over a distance behind the crack tip. In the weakening zone, the shear strength will decrease from its peak value to residual friction level. The stress will redistribute along the surface of crack and in the weakening zone. Thus the changed local stress concentration leads the crack to extend and the ratio of penetration of the slip surface to increase. From the view of large-scale for the whole slip surface, the shear strength will decrease due to the damage of interior rock structure, and the faulted rock behaves as a softening material. Such a kind of mechanism performs in a large number of practical landslides in the zones experienced strong earthquakes. It should be noted that the mechanism mentioned above is different from that of the breakage of structural clay,in which the geological material is regarded as a medium containing structural lumps and structural bands. In this paper, the softening behavior of a faulted rock should be regarded as a comprehensive result of the whole complicated process including slip-weakening, redistribution of stress, extension of crack tip, and the penetration of the slip surface. This process is accompanied by progressive failure and abrupt structural damage. The size of slip-weakening zone is related to the undergoing strain. Once the relative slide is initiated (local or integrated), the effect of slip-weakening will behave in a certain length behind the crack tip until the formation of the whole slip surface.

Mechanism of nucleation and precipitation in Li containing Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys

Investigations on the aging hardening behavior of four Al-Li-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys were carried out using differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy and hardness measurement. It is shown that the addition of Li inhibits the formation of Zn-rich G.P. zones in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys. The dominant aging hardening precipitates is delta'(Al3Li) phase. Coarse T ((AlZn)(49)Mg-32) phase, instead of MgZn2, precipitates primarily on grain boundaries, and provides little strengthening. The multi-stop aging involving plastic deformation introduces in the matrix a high concentration of structural defects. These defects play different role on the nucleation of Zn-rich G.P. zones in different alloys. For the Li free alloy, structural defects act as vacancy sinks and tend to suppress the homogeneous precipitation of G.P. zones, while for the Li containing alloys, these defects promote the heterogeneous nucleation of G.P. zones and metastable MgZn2. A significant aging hardening effect is attained in deformed Li containing alloys due to the extra precipitation of fine MgZn2 in the matrix combined with deformation hardening.

Formation Mechanism of Cracks in Saturated Sand

The formation mechanism of “water film” (or crack) in saturated sand is analyzed theoretically and numerically. The theoretical analysis shows that there will be no stable “water film” in the saturated sand if the strength of the skeleton is zero and no positions are choked. It is shown by numerical simulation that stable water films initiate and grow if the choking state keeps unchanged once the fluid velocities decrease to zero in the liquefied sand column. The developments of “water film” based on the model presented in this paper are compared with experimental results.

Study of Growth Mechanism of Lysozyme Crystal by Batch Crystallization Method

The lysozyme crystals were made by batch crystallization method and the distribution of aggregate in solution were measured by dynamic light scattering. The results showed that the dimension of aggregate increased with the increase of the concentration of lysozyme and NaCl, lysozyme molecules aggregated gradually in solution and finally arrived at balance each other. The higher the concentrations of lysozyme and NaCl were, the faster the growth rate of (I 10) face was. The growth rates of lysozyme crystal were obtained by a Zeiss microscope, and the effective surface energy (a) of growing steps were calculated about 4.01 X 10(-8) J.cm(-2) according to the model of multiple two-dimensional nucleation mechanism.

On the mechanism of the formation of horizontal cracks in a vertical column of saturated sand

Extended horizontal cracks have! been observed experimentally in a vertical column of saturated sand when a flow of water is forced to percolate upward through it. This paper provides a theory for this phenomenon. It will be shown that the presence of inhomogeneity in permeability along the length of the column is essential for such cracks to develop. It will also be shown that small initial inhomogeneity may be magnified through the transport of the finer component of the sand by percolation. Under certain conditions liquefaction takes place at a section of the sand column causing a crack to initiate and grow there. This theory is found to be in good qualitative agreement with the experimental findings.

Mechanism Analysis of Landslide of a Layered Slope Induced by Drawdown of Water Level

The frequent drawdown of water level of Yangtze River will greatly influence the stability of the widely existing slopes in the Three Gorges reservoir zone, especially those layered ones. Apart from the fluctuating speed of water level, the different geological materials will also play important roles in the failure of slopes. Thus, it must be first to study the mechanism of such a landslide caused by drawdown of water level.A new experimental setup is designed to study the performance of a layered slope under the drawdown of water level. The pattern of landslide of a layered slope induced by drawdown of water level has been explored by means of simulating experiments. The influence of fluctuating speed of water level on the stability of the layered slope is probed,especially the whole process of deformation and development of landslide of the slope versus time. The experimental results show that the slope is stable during the water level rising, and the sliding body occurs in the upper layer of the slope under a certain drawdown speed of water level. In the process of slope failure, some new small sliding body will develop on the main sliding body, and the result is that they speed up the disassembly of the whole slope.Based on the simulating experiment on landslide of a layered slope induced by drawdown of water level, the stress and displacement field of the slope are calculated.The seepage velocity, the pore water pressure, and the gradient of pore water head are also calculated for the whole process of drawdown of water level. The computing results are in good agreement with the experimental results. Accordingly, the mechanism of deformation and landslide of the layered slope induced by drawdown of water level is analyzed. It may provide basis for treating this kind of layered slopes in practical engineering.

Thermodynamics of the displacive mechanism of alpha(1) transformation in a beta

Thermodynamics of the displacive mechanism of plate-shaped phase alpha(1) was analyzed in beta'Cu-Zn alloys. It was proposed that the displacive transformation of the alpha(1) plate took place in the solute-depleted region formed in the parent phase during the incubation period. The thermodynamic analysis indicated that the driving force of alpha(1) transformation, Delta G, increased with the reduction of x(d), the solute concentration of the depleted region. And, Delta G could overcome-the transformation barrier with solute depletion to a certain degree. In addition, x(d) was higher than the equilibrium concentration in the phase diagram. Therefore, the shear formation of alpha(1) plate in the solute-depleted region was thermodynamically supported.