Genetic diversity and taxonomic implication of Cordyceps sinensis as revealed by RAPD markers

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers are used to investigate genetic variation and evolutionary relationships of 29 samples of Cordyceps sinensis from different geographical populations on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Out of 137 RAPD bands scored, 100 are polymorphic. A correlation is revealed between geographical distance and genetic distance. The molecular phylogenetic tree suggests that the 29 samples are divided into three notable clusters, corresponding to the geographical populations, i.e., the north population (NP), middle population (MP), and south population (SP). The NP consists of 7 northern samples from Menyuan, Maqu, and Luqu, the MP consists of 8 samples from Yushu and Chengduo, and the SP consists of 14 samples from Byma Snow Mountain, Renzhi Snow Moutain, Chongcaoxiwa, and Dacaodi. It is demonstrated that extensive genetic diversity is found among different geographical populations of C. sinensis. The genetic diversity pattern of C. sinensis may be caused by the founder effects. The taxonomic status of NP, MP, and SP populations should be that they are different subspecies rather than different species.

银杉的分子谱系地理学研究

银杉（Cathaya argyrophylla）是中国特有的濒危裸子植物，孤立分布于我国亚热带山地。虽然以往等位酶和RAPD标记的研究表明，银杉群体的遗传多样性水平很低而群体间的遗传分化很高，但迄今对该种群体的动态变化以及物种的进化历史仍缺乏了解，包括影响群体遗传结构的因素以及物种可能的避难所等，对如何有效地保护和恢复银杉群体仍缺乏科学依据。本文根据8个核基因片段和2个线粒体片段的序列数据，运用群体遗传学和谱系地理学方法，探讨了银杉在DNA水平上的多样性和群体的动态历史，探讨了影响银杉特殊的群体遗传结构的各种因素，并推测了银杉第四纪冰期的避难所，对银杉花粉活力及其变异进行检测。在此基础上，提出了保护和恢复银杉群体的具体策略和措施。主要研究结果如下： 　　1. 核甘酸多态性和群体遗传结构 　　从101个核基因片段中筛选了8个适用于银杉的片段，对来自四个地区15个群体共86个个体的胚乳总DNA进行了扩增和测序。8个核基因座位的平均核苷酸多态性（θs＝0.0022，πs＝0.0027）显著低于其它松杉植物遗传多态性的多座位估计值。四个地区中，大瑶山（DY）的多态性最高（θs＝0.0026，πs＝0.0027），八面山（BM）最低（θs＝0.0014，πs＝0.0018），大娄山（DL）和越城岭（YC）介于二者之间。大多数座位内的多态位点间紧密连锁，座位间的连锁只在八面山地区检测到。AMOVA分析表明显著性的多态性比例存在于地区间（20.05％）和地区内群体间（9.37％）。FST分析也显示群体间（FST＝0.294）和地区间（FST =0.131-0.319）存在显著的遗传分化。推测伴随着瓶颈效应而出现的遗传漂变及其有限的基因流（Nm=1.2）是导致银杉群体低水平多态性和群体间强烈分化的主要原因。 　　2．谱系地理学分析 　　利用2个线粒体片段（nad1和nad4）序列以及高变异量的核2009片段序列对银杉的谱系地理进行了探讨。2个线粒体片段的多态位点组合成3种单倍型，将银杉分成大娄山（DL）、八面山（BM）以及越城岭（YC）和大瑶山（DY）3个地区，地区间的单倍型完全不同（GST=1.0），结合核基因呈现的群体遗传结构，推测现存银杉群体至少来源于4个冰期避难所，相当于银杉现存的4个相互隔离的地区。2009座位上12个变异位点组合成8种单倍型，位于单倍型谱系内部节点的4种祖先单倍型分布广泛、出现频率最高，其它7个核基因座位具有类似谱系结构。遗传距离和地理距离没有相关性，NST (0.138)与GST (0.134)没有显著性差异，说明现存的银杉群体是相对较近的时间内片断化的产物。2009片段分离位点的失配分布（mismatch distribution）呈双峰和多峰，表明银杉群体没有经历近期的扩张，与古生物学研究证据相吻合。 　　3. 银杉的基因杂合性和花粉生命力 　　利用2009和cad两个核基因片段，采用多胚乳序列法得到总的杂合体比率为64％（2009）和60％（cad），说明银杉群体中存在高比例的杂合体。大娄山地区的杂合体比率是八面山地区的2倍。银杉杂合体比率的高低可能与其遗传多态性有关，也可能是自然选择的结果。采用TTC染色法对银杉的花粉生命力进行了测定，在干燥低温条件下银杉花粉的活力很稳定，保存一年后有活力的花粉数仍高达80％以上。通过对来自两个地区（DY和YC）7个群体共16个银杉个体花粉活力的测定发现，银杉有活力花粉比例高达93.3％，与其它裸子植物相当。花粉活力在地区间和群体间存在显著差异，花坪地区（95.2%）的花粉活力高于大瑶山（91.3%）。花粉活力在群体内个体间差异不显著。 　　4．银杉的进化历史及其保护 　　银杉的低水平的遗传多样性和独特的群体遗传结构对我们推测其冰川期避难所提供了重要依据。本研究在银杉4个孤立分布区发现了彼此不重叠的线粒体单倍型，同时核基因表现出了4个地理群，说明随着第四纪冰期气候的波动和银杉分布范围的片段化，原来广布的群体逐步萎缩，最后被保留在位于西部大娄山（DL），东部八面山(BM)，中南部越城岭(YC)和南部大瑶山(DY) 4个相互隔离的避难所。银杉独特的群体结构和动态历史对进一步制定相应的保护措施具有重要参考价值。由于遗传多态性很低，群体又小，几乎所有现存的银杉群体都面临由于随机事件导致的物种灭绝。更严重的是，当前该物种的适生环境不断恶化和片段化，以及异常低的生殖和存活率导致银杉与其它物种竞争能力很低。因此，除目前采取的原地保护策略外，迁地保护应给予优先考虑。此外，采用传统的控制授粉策略（在遗传上有显著差异的群体间开展人工杂交）是丰富其遗传多态性、恢复衰退群体的可行措施之一。

密码协议的一种安全模型

将密码协议与密码算法视为一个系统,建立了密码协议系统的一种安全模型.基于假设/保证的组合推理技术提出了新的假设/保证推理规则和假设/保证推理算法,证明了该规则的完备性,实现了密码协议系统的模型检查,并重点解决了系统分解问题、假设函数的设定问题、进程+逻辑的系统特性描述问题等难题.以kerberos密码协议系统为例,利用该安全模型和假设/保证推理技术对密码协议系统进行了安全验证.

基于基因规划的主机异常入侵检测模型

异常检测技术假设所有的入侵行为都会偏离正常行为模式.尝试寻找一种新的异常入侵检测模型改善准确性和效率.模型利用应用程序的系统调用序列,通过基因规划建立了正常行为模式.模型的一个例程管理一个进程.当它发现进程的实际系统调用序列模式偏离正常的行为模式时,会将进程设标记为入侵,并采取应急措施.还给出了基因规划的适应度计算方法以及两个生成下一代的基本算子.通过与现有一些模型的比较,该模型具有更好的准确性和更高的效率.

Genetic diversity and population history of the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) as inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence variations

The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is one of the flagship species in worldwide conservation and is of special interest in evolutionary studies due to its taxonomic uniqueness. We sequenced a 236-bp fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop region in a sample of 5

Rapid evolution, genetic variations, and functional association of the human spermatogenesis-related gene NYD-SP12

NYD-SP12 is a recently identified spermatogenesis-related gene with a pivotal role in human testis development. In this study, we analyzed between-species divergence and within-species variation of NYD-SP12 in seven representative primate species, four wo

Paternal genetic affinity between western Austronesians and Daic populations

Background: Austronesian is a linguistic family spread in most areas of the Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. Based on their linguistic similarity, this linguistic family included Malayo-Polynesians and Taiwan aborigines. The lingui

Genetic divergence of orangutan subspecies (Pongo pygmaeus)

Microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA sequences were studied for the two subspecies of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), which are located in Borneo (P. p, pygmaeus) and Sumatra (P. p. abelii), respectively. Both subspecies possess marked genetic diversity. Ge

Genetic relationship of Chinese ethnic populations revealed by mtDNA sequence diversity

The origin and demographic history of the ethnic populations of China have not been clearly resolved. In this study, we examined the hypervariable segment I sequences (HVSI) of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 372 individuals from nine Chinese popu

Different matrilineal contributions to genetic structure of ethnic groups in the Silk Road region in China

Previous studies have shown that there were extensive genetic admixtures in the Silk Road region. In the present study, we analyzed 252 mtDNAs of five ethnic groups (Uygur, Uzbek, Kazak, Mongolian, and Hui) from Xinjiang Province, China (through which the

Genetic differentiation and cryptic speciation in natural populations of Drosophila lacertosa

Drosophila lacertosa, an Oriental member of the robusta species group in the virilis-repleta radiation, has a wide distribution from northern India throughout China to the Far East. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial ND2 gene sequences revealed two ge

Characterization of TRPC2, an Essential Genetic Component of VNS Chemoreception, Provides Insights into the Evolution of Pheromonal Olfaction in Secondary-Adapted Marine Mammals

Pheromones are chemical cues released and sensed by individuals of the same species, which are of major importance in regulating reproductive and social behaviors of mammals. Generally, they are detected by the vomeronasal system (VNS). Here, we first investigated and compared an essential genetic component of vomeronasal chemoreception, that is, TRPC2 gene, of four marine mammals varying the degree of aquatic specialization and related terrestrial species in order to provide insights into the evolution of pheromonal olfaction in the mammalian transition from land to water. Our results based on sequence characterizations and evolutionary analyses, for the first time, show the evidence for the ancestral impairment of vomeronasal pheromone signal transduction pathway in fully aquatic cetaceans, supporting a reduced or absent dependence on olfaction as a result of the complete adaptation to the marine habitat, whereas the amphibious California sea lion was found to have a putatively functional TRPC2 gene, which is still under strong selective pressures, reflecting the reliance of terrestrial environment on chemical recognition among the semiadapted marine mammals. Interestingly, our study found that, unlike that of the California sea lion, TRPC2 genes of the harbor seal and the river otter, both of which are also semiaquatic, are pseudogenes. Our data suggest that other unknown selective pressures or sensory modalities might have promoted the independent absence of a functional VNS in these two species. In this respect, the evolution of pheromonal olfaction in marine mammals appears to be more complex and confusing than has been previously thought. Our study makes a useful contribution to the current understanding of the evolution of pheromone perception of mammals in response to selective pressures from an aquatic environment.

Reconstructing the evolutionary history of China: A caveat about inferences drawn from ancient DNA

The decipherment of the meager information provided by short fragments of ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is notoriously difficult but is regarded as a most promising way toward reconstructing the past from the genetic perspective. By haplogroup-specific hypervariable segment (HVS) motif search and matching or near-matching with available modem data sets, most of the ancient mtDNAs can be tentatively assigned to haplogroups, which are often subcontinent specific. Further typing for mtDNA haplogroup-diagnostic coding region polymorphisms, however, is indispensable for establishing the geographic/genetic affinities of ancient samples with less ambiguity. In the present study, we sequenced a fragment (similar to 982 bp) of the mtDNA control region in 76 Han individuals from Taian, Shandong, China, and we combined these data with previously reported samples from Zibo and Qingdao, Shandong. The reanalysis of two previously published ancient mtDNA population data sets from Linzi (same province) then indicates that the ancient populations had features in common with the modem populations from south China rather than any specific affinity to the European mtDNA pool. Our results highlight that ancient mtDNA data obtained under different sampling schemes and subject to potential contamination can easily create the impression of drastic spatiotemporal changes in the genetic structure of a regional population during the past few thousand years if inappropriate methods of data analysis are employed.