High-throughput synergy screening identifies microbial metabolites as combination agents for the treatment of fungal infections

The high mortality rate of immunocompromised patients with fungal infections and the limited availability of highly efficacious and safe agents demand the development of new antifungal therapeutics. To rapidly discover such agents, we developed a high-throughput synergy screening (HTSS) strategy for novel microbial natural products. Specifically, a microbial natural product library was screened for hits that synergize the effect of a low dosage of ketoconazole (KTC) that alone shows little detectable fungicidal activity. Through screening of approximate to 20,000 microbial extracts, 12 hits were identified with broadspectrum antifungal activity. Seven of them showed little cytotoxicity against human hepatoma cells. Fractionation of the active extracts revealed beauvericin (BEA) as the most potent component, because it dramatically synergized KTC activity against diverse fungal pathogens by a checkerboard assay. Significantly, in our immunocompromised mouse model, combinations of BEA (0.5 mg/kg) and KTC (0.5 mg/kg) prolonged survival of the host infected with Candida parapsilosis and reduced fungal colony counts in animal organs including kidneys, lungs, and brains. Such an effect was not achieved even with the high dose of 50 mg/kg KTC. These data support synergism between BEA and KTC and thereby a prospective strategy for antifungal therapy.

真菌诱导子对青蒿发根生长和青蒿素生物合成的影响及开花与青蒿素生物合成的相关性研究

本论文主要包括以下两部分内容： 一、真菌诱导子对青蒿发根生长和青蒿素生物合成的影响 用3种真菌诱导子[大丽花轮枝孢（Verticillium dahliae Kleb.）、葡枝根霉(Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenb. ex Fr.) Vuill)和束状刺盘孢(Colleto trichumdematium (Pers.) Grove)]分别处理青蒿(Ar temisia annuaL．)的发根，这3种真菌诱导子均能促进发根中青蒿素的合成，其中以大丽花轮枝孢的诱导效果最好;对细胞生长均没有明显影响。经大丽花轮枝孢处理的发根中青蒿素含量达1. 12 mg/gDW，比对照(0. 77 mg/g DW)提高45%。诱导子的作用效果与诱导子浓度、诱导子作用时间及发根的生长状态有关。对大丽花轮枝孢来说，诱导子作用的最适浓度为每毫升培养基含糖0.4 mg;发根在指数生长末期对诱导作用最敏感：在加入诱导子4d后收获发根，发根中的青蒿素含量最高。 二、早花基因FPF1、co对青蒿开花时间的影响及开花与青蒿素生物合成的相关性 1．将来源于拟南芥的早花基因Flowering Promoting Factorl (FPFl)插入到植物表达载体pBI121中，构建CaMV 35S启动子控制下含FPFl基因的植物表达载体pBI121FPF/，用含有pBI121FPF/质粒的根癌农杆菌(Agrobacterium tumefaciens)LBA4404感染青蒿(Artemisia annua L.)叶片并诱导丛生芽，经卡那霉素筛选，获得转基因抗性植株。PCR、 PCR-Southem blot及Southern blot检测表明，外源基因FPFI已整合到青蒿基因组中：RT-PCR及RT-PCR Southern blot分析表明，外源基因在转录水平上已有表达。在短日照条件下，FPF1转基因植株的开花时间较对照提前20天左右，但提早开花的转基因植株与未开花的对照其青蒿素含量无明显差异，即提早开花并不能使开花植株的青蒿素含量有所提高，开花与青蒿素合成之间可能没有直接的关系。 2．将拟南芥的早花基因CONSTANS (CO)置于CaMV 35S启动子之下，通过根癌农杆菌(Agrobacterium tumefaciens)LBA4404介导转入青蒿(Artemisia annuaL．)，使之在青蒿中表达，并得到了抗性植株。PCR、PCR-Southem blot及Southemblot检测表明，外源基因co已整合到青蒿基因组中;RT-PCR及RT-PCR Southemblot分析表明，外源基因在转录水平上已有表达。在短日照条件下，co转基因植株的开花时间较对照提前2周左右，但提早开花的转基因植株的青蒿素含量与未丌花的对照无明显差异，即植株开花前青蒿素含量的提高并不是由于开花本身引起的，再次证明，开花与青蒿素合成之间可能没有直接的关系。

中国都江堰地区两种林龄森林中外生菌根真菌的多样性

外生菌根是重要的菌根类群，在自然界中分布广泛。外生菌根真菌参与了生物地球化学循环，是森林生态系统中的重要组分。由于外生菌根真菌的宿主植物通常是一些生态系统的优势种和建群种，并且这些真菌还参与了许多森林生态系统的有机和无机元素循环、物种的竞争和共存、生物多样性的维持、生态系统的演替等过程，因而对外生菌根真菌的研究有助于对这些生态系统维持和演替机制的深入理解。作者在中国四川都江堰地区选择了两个不同林龄的森林，应用分子生物学方法，研究了它们的外生菌根真菌群落组成。比较分析了两种年龄亚热带森林下真菌群落的物种组成、密度和多样性的差异，并分析了外生菌根真菌群落与宿主植物群落之间的相互关系，主要研究结果如下： (1) 用分子方法(巢式PCR, RFLP和DNA测序)鉴定了87个土样中的ECM真菌。共检测到70种真菌，属于13目21科30属，其中,子囊菌门5目6科6属8种,担子菌门8目15科24属62种。在担子菌门中，革菌目、红菇目和伞菌目三个目的真菌为常见种。 (2) 成熟林的ECM真菌物种数、密度和物种多样性都显著高于幼林。 (3) 少数几种ECM真菌在群落中占绝对优势，而大多数种类的相对多度和相对频度都较低。重要值（IV）至少在一个样地中大于4.0％的真菌共有12种。成熟林中，IV大于4.0％的ECM真菌有8种，分别是：Russula sp.01，Tomentella sp.01，Tomentella sp.04，Tomentella sp.05，Boletales-01，Lactarius sp.01，Tricholomataceae-01，Leptodontidium sp.01；幼林中IV大于4.0％的真菌有6种，分别是：Lactarius quietus，Russula sp.01，Tomentella sp.01，Tomentella sp.02，Tomentella sp.03， Trechisporales-01。 (4) 成熟林与幼林中的优势属有所不同，成熟林以绵菌属和红菇属最丰富，幼林以乳菇属最丰富，其次是绵菌属和红菇属； (5) ECM真菌群落与乔木群落关系密切，ECM真菌群落物种多样性随着菌根乔木群落物种多样性的增加而增加；ECM群落密度随着非菌根乔木群落密度的增加而降低；ECM群落物种数随着非菌根乔木群落物种数的增加而降低。 (6) ECM真菌群落间的相似性与菌根乔木群落间相似性之间呈显著正相关，即，菌根乔木群落之间越相似，则菌根群落之间也越相似；ECM群落间的相似性与非菌根乔木群落间的相似性之间无相关性。

An anionic antimicrobial peptide from toad Bombina maxima

Amphibian skin is a rich resource of antimicrobial peptides like maximins and maximins H from toad Bombina maxima. A novel cDNA clone encoding a precursor protein that comprises maximin 3 and a novel peptide. named maximin H5. was isolated from a skin cDNA library of B. maxima. The predicted primary structure of maximin H5 is ILGPVLGLVSDTLDDVLGIL-NH2,. Containing three aspartate residues and no basic amino acid residues. maximin H5 is characterized by an anionic property. Different from cationic maximin H peptides. only Gram-positive strain Staphylococcus aureus was sensitive to maximin H5. while the other bacteria] and fungal strains tested ere resistant to it. The presence of metal ions. like Zn2+ and Mg2+, did not increase its antimicrobial potency. Maximin H5 represents the first example of potential anionic antimicrobial peptides from amphibians, The results provide the first evidence that. together kith cationic antimicrobial peptides. anionic antimicrobial peptides may also exist naturally as part of the innate defense system. (C), 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Maximin 9, a novel free thiol containing antimicrobial peptide with antimycoplasma activity from frog Bombina maxima

Amphibian skin is a rich resource of antimicrobial peptides, like maximins and maximin Hs from frog Bombina maxima. Novel cDNA clones encoding a precursor protein, which comprises a novel maximin peptide (maximin 9) and reported maximin H3, were isolated from two constructed skin cDNA libraries of B. maxima. The predicted primary structure of maximin 9 is GIGRKFLGGVKTTFRCGVKDFASKHLY-NH2. A surprising substitution is at position 16, with a free cysteine in maximin 9 rather than usual conserved glycine in other reported maximins. Maximin 9, the homodimer form and its Cys(16) to Gly(16) mutant were synthesized and their antimicrobial activities were evaluated. Unlike previously reported maximin 3, the tested bacterial and fungal strains were resistant to maximin 9, its homodimer and the Cys(16) to Gly(16) mutant (with MICs > 100 mu M). On the other hand, interestingly, while eight clinical Mollicutes strains were generally resistant to maximin 9 homodimer and its Cys(16) to Gly(16) mutant, most of them are sensitive to maximin 9 at a peptide concentration of 30 mu M, especially in the presence of dithiothreitol. These results indicate that the presence of a reactive Cys residue in maximin 9 is important for its antimycoplasma activity. The diversity of antimicrobial peptide cDNA structures encountered in B. maxima skin cDNA libraries and the antimicrobial specificity differences of the peptides may reflect well the species' adaptation to the unique microbial environments. (c) 2005 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Characteristics of the microbial communities in the integrated vertical-flow constructed wetlands

Microorganisms play an important role in removing pollutants from constructed wetlands. We investigated the microbial characteristics in a novel integrated vertical-flow constructed wetland (IVCW), which has been in operation in Wuhan, China since 1998. We used phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) and amoA gene to analyze the structure and diversity of the microbial community within the IVCW. PLFA results suggested that the amount of bacterial PLFA was significantly higher than that of fungal PLFA, but the total microbial biomass represented by PLFA index was low in the system. Microbial spatial distribution showed significantly higher bacterial (both G(+) and G(-)) and fungal biomass in the surface than in the subsurface layers. The ratios of monounsaturated to branched PLFA demonstrated that an anaerobic layer sandwiched by two aerobic layers existed in the IVCW, consistent with the redox potential results. Analysis of the amoA revealed the presence of Nitrosomonas-like sequences in the surface substrate of the downflow chamber and apparent diversities of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in the system. These results suggest that microorganisms, despite their relatively low biomass, have inhabited the IVCW, and the results will offer some valuable information on microbe to system designers and managers.

Monitoring bioaccumulation and toxic effects of hexachlorobenzene using the polyurethane foam unit method in the microbial communities of the Fuhe River, Wuhan

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbon that was widely used for seed dressing in prevention of fungal growth on crops, and also as a component of fireworks, ammunition, and synthetic rubbers. Because of its resistance to degradation and mobility, HCB is widely distributed throughout the environment and is accumulated through food chains in different ecosystems. In this study, a preliminary investigation was carried out on the bioaccumulation and the toxic effects of HCB in the microbial (protozoan in particular) communities in the Fuhe River, Wuhan, a water body receiving industrial wastewaters containing HCB and other pollutants, using the standardized polyurethane foam units (PFU) method. Field samples were taken from eight stations established along the Fuhe River in January and August 2006. The concentration ratios of HCB in microbial communities and in water were 9.66-18.64, and the microbial communities accumulated 13.29-56.88 mu g/L of HCB in January and 0.82-10.25 mu g/L HCB in August. Correlation analysis showed a negative correlation between the HCB contents in the microbial assemblage, and the number of species and the diversity index of the protozoan communities. This study demonstrated the applicability of the PFU method in monitoring the effects of HCB on the level of microbial communities.

乙草胺、甲胺磷及其复合对黑土真菌的生态效应

农药对土壤微生物区系结构和功能的影响以及潜在的生态风险成为人们关注的热点之一。本文以中科院海伦生态站农田黑土作为实验土壤，采用室内模拟的方法，利用传统的（CFU和ergosterol）及分子微生物生态学技术（DGGE，real-time PcR，clolle library）研究了乙草胺、甲胺磷及其复合对黑土真菌的生态效应，并得出以下结果：经8周处理，中、高浓度乙草胺（150和250mgkg-1）对土壤真菌数量、生物量和可培养真菌种群多样性具有长期抑制效应。乙草胺处理8周后可培养真菌和土壤固氮微生物n州基因的种群结构不能得到恢复，而总的真菌结构可基本恢复。甲胺磷对土壤可培养真菌数量和生物量具有促进作用，以高浓度（250mgkg~(-1)）尤为显著。高浓度甲胺磷（25omgkg~(-1)）对nifH基因多样性有长期抑制效应。甲胺磷处理8周后可培养真菌种群结构不可恢复，而总的真菌和n积基因种群结构可部分恢复。两者复合后对真菌数量，生物量，多样性及n担基因多样性的影响无论是促进还是抑制其作用强度都大于单因子。处理8周后可培养真菌、总的真菌和n州基因三者的种群结构均不可恢复。克隆测序分析发现乙草胺、甲胺磷及其复合可明显促进植物致病真菌（colletolrichum；truncatum，Rhizoctonia zeae，Fusarium oxysporum）的生长，同时使土壤中常见的青霉菌数量减少，使农药处理后具有潜在的植物病害爆发的风险。本试验结果表明，乙草胺、甲胺磷及其复合对土壤真菌数量、结构、多样性和功能基因nifH的多样性及其种群组成有不同程度的影响，甚至产生某些不可逆的长期生态效应。复合处理对土壤真菌的影响要大于两个单因子作用，表现了明显的复合生态效应。一般来说受到午扰的真菌种群结构不容易自然恢复，因此建议在施用这两种农药过程中要避免大量、频繁的单独或复合施用。

绞股蓝离体培养中影响皂甙产量的几个因素研究

绞股蓝(Gynostemma pentaphyllum)系葫芦科绞股蓝属植物，药用价值广泛，但其野生资源日趋减少，绞股蓝主要药效成分为绞股 蓝皂甙。利用组织和细胞培养生产绞股蓝皂甙是合理开发利用和保护绞股蓝资源的可能途径之一。本文对绞股蓝组织培养中培养基 的蔗糖和激素的组成以及各种胁迫条件：渗透压、重金属离子、真菌诱导物等对皂苷产量的影响进行了初步研究。其中，渗透压、 重金属离子、真菌诱导物对绞股蓝愈伤组织皂甙产量的影响尚未见报道。1. 蔗糖对绞股蓝愈伤组织之生长影响显著，2,4-D对绞股 蓝愈伤组织皂甙含量、产量影响显著。增加蔗糖用量，减少2，4-D的用量可提高皂甙产量。2. Mn++ 用量的提高抑制绞股蓝愈伤组 织的生长，但可促进皂甙含量、产量的提高。Mn++用量提高至MS培养基的20-30倍时可使皂甙产量增加近一倍，而提高Cu++浓度的 作用不明显。3. 甘露醇用量增加抑制绞股蓝愈伤组织的生长，但可使皂甙含量、产量提高。0.680mol·l-1甘露醇可使皂甙产量提 高83%，而Nacl较大抑制愈伤组织的生长并使皂甙产量降低。4. 米曲霉粗提物对绞股蓝愈伤组织生长先略微促进，然后抑制，而根 霉粗提物则使愈伤组织生长受抑制；两者对皂甙含量、产量的作用相似：在较低浓度范围内升高，然后下降。米曲霉粗提物可提高 产量一倍，根霉粗提物可提高42%。这些结果为高产细胞系的筛选和生长、生产培养条件的优化积累了资料。在综述部分，对植物 细胞培养中组织和器官分化、细胞结构变化、生化水平的变化与次生物合成和积累的关系作了讨论。Gynostemma pentaphyllum blongs to Gynostemma, Cucurbitaccae. It has a wide medical use, but its wild resource is threatened by people's excessive use. Its effective medical components are gypenosides. For reasonable use and protect its resource, it is a possible way to product gypenosides by plant tissue and cell culture. This paper has a primary study on the components of sucrose and hormones and a variety of stress conditions: osmostic pressure, heavy metal ion, fungal elicitors in the medium for the calli culture. The effects of osmostic pressure, heavy metal ion and fungal elicitors on the calli of Gynostemma pentaphyllum have not been reported. 1. Sucrose had a significant effect on the growth of the calli, 2,4 D had notable effects on the gypenosides content and production of the calli. Increased the concentration of sucrose and decreased the concentration of 2,4 D improved the production of gypenosides. 2. Increased the concentration of Mn++ inhibited the growth of the calli, but improved the content and production of gypenosides. The optimum concentration was 20-30 times as MS medium which improved the production 100%. Increased the concentration of Cu++ had not a notable effect. 3. Increased the concentration of mannitol inhibited the growth of the calli, but improved the content and production of gypenosides. The optimum concentration was 0.680mol·l-1 which improved the production 83%. Nacl apparently inhibited the growth of the calli and decreased the production of gypenosides. 4. The crude preparation of Aspergillus oryzae inhibited the growth of the calli that in low concentration. The crude praparation of Rhizopus formosensis inhibited the growth of the calli throughout. Their effects on the content and production of gypenosides are alike, but the former is higher than the latter. On the optimum concentration, each crude preparation improved the production 100% (Aspergillus oryzae), 42%(Rhizopus formosensis). These results has accumulated some informantion on the select of high yield cell strains and choose the best culture conditons for the growth and gypenosides product of the calli. In the review, it is discussed that the differentiation on tissue-organal, cellular and biochemical levels related to the synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites in plant culuture.