中学生问题解决中操作要求对资源分配的影响

Schema acquisition is one of the mechanisms of learning. How to design reasonable teaching material to promote schema acquisition is an important question that psychological researchers and educators both interested. Cognitive Load Theory indicates that: The cognitive resource of Human is limited, the organization and presentation of the learning material should avoid demanding the learner consume resource in actions that have nothing to do with schema acquisition. How can we do that? Sweller. J. et think: Increasing the operation cost of the learning material would make the students put more resource into the implementation of the operation, this kind of resource consuming has nothing to do with schema acquisition. So, in order to make the students put more resource into actions which relating to schema acquisition, we should decrease the operation cost of the learning material. But, the research results of O'Hara et indicate: In problem-solving of knowledge lean field, increasing the operation cost would make the college students invent more resource to plan and understanding actions. So, Increasing the operation cost would facilitate the schema acquisition. How operation cost will effect the Middle-School Students' (MSS) schema acquisition and resource distribution when they solve problems of knowledge lean/rich field? This is the main question this research want to make inquiry. IN this research, we use three experiments indicate: Increasing the operation cost of actions, the implementing action would be less and the planning action would be more. So, increasing the operation cost can promote the schema acquisition. We use "cost-benefit analysis" strategy to explain this result. This strategy means that: Human is rational, before doing one action, he will weigh the cost and the coming benefit of this action, if the coming benefit is higher than the cost, he will implement this action; if the cost is higher than the coming benefit, this action will be contained. On the one hand, this research further affirms the core opinion of the Cognitive Load Theory: Human's cognitive resource is limited, we should put the limited resource into actions which is related to the schema acquisition; On the other hand, for the learning material designing principle which is advanced by the Cognitive Load Theory, we raise our questions. Besides, the question we raised holds some identical views with the constructive learning opinion: Learning is not passive information absorption, but positively constructing the meaning of the information, besides, this kind of construction can't done by others. The result of this research can provide some theory guidance and experimental basis for the designing of the MSS's science teaching material from a complete new angle.

贡嘎山植物小枝功能性状在不同生活型和不同海拔间的比较研究

植物功能生态学研究不仅提供了植物生理生态学与生态系统生态学的连接，还为植物种群生活史对策研究提供了材料。Westoby 等 (2002) 提出了利用植物功能性状变量的主导维度来确定和量化植物生活史的生态适应策略。在他们所提出四个主导维度中，叶大小－小枝大小是研究相对较少的一维；其内部各组分的关系、对环境的响应，以及与其它重要维度的关系，目前的理解非常有限。 本研究以贡嘎山不同海拔不同功能群物种为研究对象，采用种间比较和系统发生独立性比较等研究方法，系统研究了植物的功能特征及其相关性在不同生境及不同功能群间的差异，旨在分析不同功能群物种的叶大小－小枝大小的成本和收益。其研究结果将有助于我们理解植物生活史对策的进化，进而理解物种共存和维持物种多样性的机制。主要研究结果如下： 1. 叶大小－小枝大小关系 小枝茎横截面积与单叶面积和总叶面积均呈异速生长关系，即总叶面积和单叶面积的增加比茎横截面积的增加速度快。但是，总叶面积和叶片干重的增加却基本上与小枝茎干重的增加等速。系统发生独立性比较研究的结果与此相一致。表明，在某一给定的茎投入时，至少大叶大枝物种不比小叶小枝物种在支撑叶面积和叶片干重方面具有优势。同时，在某一给定的小枝茎投入时，常绿阔叶物种比落叶阔叶物种支撑更少的叶面积。在茎干重与总叶面积的关系中，落叶复叶物种比落叶单叶物种具有更高的y轴截距，表明复叶物种比单叶物种在展叶面积方面更有效。复叶物种与单叶物种相比，通常具有较大的叶大小和小枝大小。 2. 叶大小－叶数量关系 叶大小与数量间在不同的叶片习性、不同的叶片形态以及不同的生境类型的物种间均存在稳定的负的等速生长关系，且这种关系在系统发生独立性比较时依然成立。然而，在某一给定的出叶强度 (单位小枝的叶数量) 时，常绿阔叶物种比落叶物种具有更小的叶面积。而在给定体积基础上的出叶强度时，落叶复叶物种的叶面积显著大于落叶单叶物种，且复叶物种比单叶物种具有更大的叶大小和更小的出叶强度。但是，叶大小与数量间的关系在不同的海拔间并没有显著的差异。 3. 小枝大小－总叶面积关系 在不同的生活型或不同的生境下，小枝上总叶面积与茎干重和小枝干重均呈正的异速生长关系，且斜率显著小于1.0，表明小枝上总叶面积的增加都不能赶上小枝及茎大小的增加。这种“收益递减”表明随着小枝干重的增加，光截取的收益递减。此外，叶面积比 (总叶面积与小枝干重的比值) 与单叶干重呈显著负相关关系，系统发生独立性比较的结果与此相一致。根据以上结果，可以推测，大叶的物种在质量较好的生境中出现，而群落内部小枝茎的寿命较长的物种可以拥有较大的叶片。 4. 叶片色素浓度－LMA关系 随着海拔的升高，阔叶木本植物和草本植物的叶片色素浓度减少，叶绿素a/b和类胡萝卜素/叶绿素比值以及比叶重 (LMA) 增加。然而，在草本植物中的色素浓度、色素比值和LMA的变化比阔叶木本植物的更明显。同时，LMA与叶片色素浓度呈负相关关系，但是在落叶物种中的LMA对色素浓度的影响比常绿阔叶物种更强烈。总之，草本植物的叶片特征对海拔梯度的变化似乎比木本植物更敏感，LMA对叶片色素的保护作用在落叶物种中比在常绿阔叶物种显得更重要。这些结果表明不同生活型物种可能采取不同的保护机制来降低叶绿体器官的损伤和增加他们的碳获取能力。 Studies on plant functional ecology not only bridge plant eco-physiology and ecosystem functioning, but also enrich plant population biology. As pointed out by Westoby et al (2002), plant life history strategies can be identified and quantified by four leading dimensions of variations in plant functional traits, i.e., seed size/output, leaf mass per area and leaf life span, plant height, and leaf size-twig size. Compared to the other dimensions, the cost/benefit of the leaf size-twig size spectrum has scarcely been analyzed in relation to environmental gradients and life form types, and the adaptive significance of this spectrum is not fully understood. In the present study, the relationships between functional traits of plant twigs are determined for the species with different life forms along an altitudinal gradient of Gongga Mountain with both cross-species analysis and evolutionary divergence analysis. The primary objective of this study is to examine the cost/benefit of leaf size-twig size in plants. The study results are supposed to provide insights into the understanding of the mechanism of species coexistences. The results are shown in the following. 1. The relationship between leaf size and twig size Twig cross-sectional area allometrically scaled with both individual leaf area and total leaf area supported by the twigs. However, the increase in total lamina mass/area was generally proportional to the increase in stem mass. These correlations between trait variations were significant in both interspecies analysis and phylogenetically independent comparison (PIC) analysis, which indicated that thick-twigged/large-leaved species, at least, do not have an advantage in supporting leaf/lamina area and lamina mass for the same twig stem investment than thin-twigged/ small-leaved species. Meanwhile, the evergreen broad-leaved species supported a smaller leaf area for the same twig stem investment in terms of both cross-sectional area and stem mass than the deciduous species. The deciduous compound-leaved species have a higher y-intercept in the scaling relationship of twig stem mass versus total leaf area than the deciduous simple-leaved species, indicating that compound-leaved species were more efficient in displaying leaf area. The compound-leaved species were larger in both leaf size and twig size than their counterpart in the present study. 2. The relationship between leaf size and leaf number Significantly negative and isometric scaling relationships between leaf size and leafing intensity (leaf number per twig mass or volume) were found to be consistently conserved across species independent of leaf habit, leaf form and habitat type. The negative correlations between leaf size and leafing intensity were also observed across correlated evolutionary divergences. However, leaf area was smaller in the evergreen broad-leaved species at a given leafing intensity than in the deciduous species. The deciduous compound-leaved deciduous species were higher in leaf area than deciduous simple-laved species at a given volume-based leafing intensity. Moreover, the compound-leaved deciduous species were larger in leaf size but smaller in leafing intensity than their simple counterparts. No significant difference was found in the scaling relationships between altitudes. 3. The relationship between twig size and total leaf area Leaf area was found to scale positively and allometrically with both stem and twig mass (stem mass plus leaf mass) with slopes significantly smaller than 1.0, independent of life form and habitat type, indicating that the increase in total leaf area fails to keep pace with increasing twig size and stem size. This ‘diminishing returns’ suggests that the benefit of light intercept decreased with increasing twig mass. Moreover, the leaf area ratio (the ratio of total leaf area to stem or twig mass) correlated negatively with individual leaf mass. The results of PIC were consistent with the correlations. According to the results, it is speculated that large-leaved species may be favored when habitat is good and when stem longevity are long within community. 4. The relationship between leaf pigment concentrations and leaf mass per area With increasing altitude, the concentrations of pigments decreased, but the ratios of chlorophyll a/b and carotenoid/chlorophyll, and LMA increased, in both the broad-leaved woody species and herbaceous species groups. However, the changes in the pigment concentrations, ratios and LMA were more profound in the herbaceous species than in the woody species. In addition, pigment concentrations were negatively correlated with LMA in each life form type and in the pooled dataset. However, the LMA effect on leaf pigment concentrations was more profound in the deciduous species than in the evergreen braode-leaved species. In general, herbaceous species seemed more sensitive to the increasing altitude compared to woody species, and LMA seemed to be a more important mechanism for protecting leaf pigments in deciduous species than in evergreen broad-leaved species. These results suggested that the species with different life forms may employ different protective mechanisms to decrease the chloroplast apparatus damage and increase their carbon gain.

克隆植物对异质性生境的适应对策研究

植物的生境在时间和空间上都是异质性的，即使在很小的尺度上这种异质性也是存在的。克隆生长使得克隆植物在理论上更适应利用异质性环境，本文以几种克隆植物为对象，采用实验生态学方法，着重从生理生态特性、信号物质传导方面探讨克隆植物对异质性环境的适应对策。 以匍匐茎克隆植物野草莓(Fragaria vesca)为对象，研究了不同海拔梯度种群(1800m和3900m)对光照和养分资源斑块性分布生境的响应。研究结果显示：与资源的空间同质性处理(I) 和(II) 相比, 资源的空间异质性处理(III) 和(IV) 两个种群野草莓的近端、远端和整个克隆片段的生物量和分株数均获得显著增加。经历低光高养近端分株与经历高光低养的远段分株相连时，相比与低光高养的同质生境，来自两个海拔的种群分配更多的生物量到根；经历高光低养近端分株与经历低光高养远端分株相连时，相比于高光低养的同质生境，来自两个海拔的种群分配更少的生物量到根，类似的生物量分配格局在远端分株也被观察到。相比于高光低养同质性生境，当与低光高养远端分株相连时经历高光低养近端分株有更大的叶面积；相比于高光低养同质性生境，当与低光高养近端分株相连时经历高光低养远端分株有更大叶面积。实验结果表明, 资源交互斑块性生境中野草莓发生了克隆内分工。通过克隆内分工, 克隆植物能有效的利用异质性分布的资源, 缓解资源交互斑块性分布对克隆植物生长的不利影响。 以匍匐茎克隆植物蛇莓(Duchesnea indica)为对象, 研究其在高光照低水分斑块和低光照高水分斑块组成的资源交互斑块性生境中的克隆内分工。结果显示，当生长于高光照低水分(HL)条件下近端分株(basal ramets)与生长于低光照高水分(LH)条件下的远端分株(apical ramets)之间的匍匐茎连接时，近端分株根冠比显著下降，而远端分株根冠比显著增加，近端分株叶面积和远端分株总根长显著增加；当与低光照高水分条件下的远端分株相连时，近端分株叶片光合速率和叶绿素含量也相应增加。此外，克隆分株间资源交互传输显著提高蛇莓的生长表现（生物量和分株数）。因此，在光、水资源交互斑块性环境中克隆植物蛇莓分株在生物量分配、资源获取器官形态和生理特性方面发生了环境诱导的功能特化。这种对局部丰富资源的趋富特化在一定的程度上增强了克隆分株对资源的吸收利用能力，克隆内资源共享有助于缓解资源交互性斑块生境对克隆植物生长的不利影响，有效地提高克隆植物在其生境中存活与定居能力。 一个盆栽实验被采用以便调查克隆整合对经受局部沙埋的根状茎克隆植物沙生苔草(Carex praeclara)的影响，结果显示随着沙埋深度的增加，切断分株间的根状茎连接将显著降低经受沙埋处理分株的存活。当克隆植物经历局部沙埋时，切断分株间根状茎连接对其克隆生长（生物量、分株数和叶片数量）有显著负影响。耗-益(cost-benefit)分析显示，当与经历沙埋处理的远端分株相连时，近端分株的生长表现没有遭受任何负面影响。与经历沙埋处理远端分株相连时，近端分株的光合能力随沙埋深度的增加而增加。分株间的源-汇反馈调节机制所导致的补偿性反应减缓了局部沙埋对克隆植物生长的负效应。因此，克隆整合有助于提高经历局部沙埋克隆植物的存活，克隆植物在沙化地区植被恢复与重建方面具有重要意义。 克隆植物分株间的匍匐茎或根状茎连接不仅可以传输水分、矿质养分、光合产物，而且还可以传输信号物质。以根状茎克隆植物黑褐苔草(Carex alrofusca)为对象，采用盆栽实验研究外源茉莉酸诱导克隆片段相连分株间信号物质传导。结果显示，相比中龄和老龄分株，幼年分株对1mM茉莉酸诱导有显著反应。茉莉酸引起幼年分株叶片浓缩单宁含量显著增加，同时其叶片可溶性碳水化合物和氮含量降低。茉莉酸诱导后，幼年分株被昆虫咬食叶面积比率显著下降。因此匍匐茎或根状茎传也是克隆植物分株间信号物质传导重要通道，克隆植物通过分株间的风险扩散策略增强了对幼嫩植物组织器官的保护，这对克隆植物的存活或生长具有重要意义。

A study on the economic efficiency of hydrogen production from biomass residues in China

As part of Pilot Project of KIP of CAS, a feasibility study of hydrogen production system using biomass residues is conducted. This study is based on a process of oxygen-rich air gasification of biomass in a downdraft gasifier plus CO-shift. The capacity of this system is 6.4 t biomass/d. Applying this system, it is expected that an annual production of 480 billion N m(3) H-2 will be generated for domestic supply in China. The capital cost of the plant used in this study is 1328$/(N m(3)/h) H-2 out, and product supply cost is 0.15$/N m(3) H-2. The cost sensitivity analysis on this system tells that electricity and catalyst cost are the two most important factors to influence hydrogen production cost.

基于栅格邻域可视性相关的最优路径问题的研究

基于可视性的最优路径分析是地形可视性分析中的一项基本功能，属于空间决策支持的范畴，在理论研究和实际应用两方面都具有重要的意义。在传统基于可视性的最优路径分析中，影响通行能力的可视性代价信息为相互独立的0维数值。然而，用0维无关的代价来表示三维地形上点的可视性信息是不全面的，有必要采用一维或更高维的代价表达方式。本文用二维视域来描述三维可视性信息，考虑到邻近点的二维视域相互重叠造成的可视性相关性对最优路径搜索的影响，提出基于栅格邻域可视性相关的最优路径问题。本文对该问题的分类和求解进行了详细的分析和讨论。 本文的创新性工作如下： (1) 改进了传统基于可视性的最优路径搜索问题。对于存在的“真实性”不足之处，考虑地形特征如土地覆盖或土地利用，障碍物及坡度等对通行能力的影响，并将这些影响和可视性信息一起添加到传统的基于可视性的最优路径搜索过程中，所得结果更加符合实际情况。 (2) 提出并求解了一类基于栅格邻域可视性相关的最优路径问题：基于平均视距最小/最大的可视覆盖路径问题。在可视覆盖最优和路径长度最优两个约束条件下，用代表路径平均视野的开阔程度的平均视距来衡量最优可视覆盖路径问题的最优性。通过对平均视距及该类问题目标函数进行建模分析以及预先计算并存储整个地形上的视域信息，用基于视域融合操作的模拟退火算法实现了该类问题的求解。 (3) 提出并求解了一类基于栅格邻域可视性相关的最优路径问题：最小可视覆盖路径问题。在只考虑可视覆盖最优的约束条件下，用代表路径视野开阔程度即“可视覆盖面积”来衡量最优可视覆盖路径问题的最优性。通过对问题目标函数建模及求解方法的比较分析，用Dijkstra算法实现了该类问题的求解。 最后，本文比较了基于栅格邻域可视性相关的和传统基于可视性无关的最不可视路径问题得到的结果。通过对新方法和传统方法应用于求解走私路径所得结果的定量和定性的分析与对比，得出新方法比传统方法准确的结论。

克隆植物东方草莓对异质生境的适应对策

克隆植物被认为比非克隆植物更宜于利用异质性环境。在复杂的空间异质环境中，克隆植物可能形成了各种有效利用环境异质性的适应对策。对于克隆植物适应机制的研究，前人已做了大量的工作，特别是从形态和生物量分配等方面对简单异质生境下克隆植物的克隆整合和克隆分工进行了详细的研究。本研究以分布广泛的克隆植物东方草莓（Fragaria orientalis）作为研究对象，应用野外调查和实验生态学方法，采用多对比度单资源模型和不同向双资源模型，从形态和生理生态的角度，研究复杂异质生境下克隆植物的整合和分工及其耗益问题，分析不同类型的生境对克隆植物整合和分工的修饰作用，进而探讨克隆植物对异质生境的适应策略。克隆构型和分株种群特征是植物克隆生长及其生态适应对策研究的基本内容。本文通过野外调查，研究在不同光照条件下东方草莓克隆构型、分株种群特征以及点分布格局。结果表明：东方草莓的克隆构型随光照发生相应的变化，低光照下其匍匐茎节间长和分枝角度均增大而分枝强度减小；随光照减弱，东方草莓分株种群的生物量、根冠比和分株种群密度显著降低；不同光照下东方草莓分株均以随机分布为主但不同尺度下有所差异，其分布格局强度依次为旷地<林缘<林下。结合克隆植物对资源的利用对策，探讨了克隆构型和分株种群特征以及分布格局随环境条件变化的生态适应意义。不同生境斑块条件下克隆植物可能采取不同的适应对策。采用盆栽实验，研究不同水分对比度下克隆整合及其生理生态特征，并对单向和交互资源中东方草莓的克隆整合做了对比研究。结果显示：高的水分对比度能够促进东方草莓的克隆整合，并能刺激相连分株增加光合作用，东方草莓体内的氧化—抗氧化系统也II随对比度做出相应的反应。耗-益分析表明胁迫分株的受益是以供给分株的损耗为代价的，但从克隆片段总体来说是受益的。单向资源中东方草莓生长的绝对值高于交互资源，但耗-益分析表明生长于交互资源下东方草莓的克隆整合获益大于生长于单向资源下东方草莓的克隆整合获益。长期生长于特定生境的克隆植物，在进化过程中其克隆整合和克隆分工在对资源异质性的适应策略方面可能有所侧重。采用盆栽实验对来自不同海拔梯度的东方草莓的克隆整合和克隆分工对异质资源的适应对策进行了研究。实验结果表明，来自高海拔的东方草莓可塑性较差。来自两个海拔的东方草莓对切断匍匐茎的表现有所差异，总体上切断匍匐茎对来自高海拔的东方草莓影响更大些。另外，来自高海拔的东方草莓表现出更高的克隆分工。IIIClonal plants are known to be more suitable for the habitats of heterogeneousresources than nonclonal plants, perhaps due to their well developed adaptivestrategies to environmental heterogeneity. Many studies have been done on theadaptive mechanisms of clonal plants, especially on the clonal integration anddivision of labor with morphology and biomass allocation under simpleheterogeneous habitats. Based on field surveys, laboratory experiments, multi-contrastunidirectional resource model and reciprocal resource model, Fragaria orientalis, aRosaceae stoloniferous herb that widely distributes in China, was used to study thisplant’s morphological and physiological responses to complicated heterogeneoushabitats in terms of its clonal integration, division of labor and cost-benefit, as well astheir modifications by different habitats, so as to better understand the adaptivestrategies of clonal plants under heterogeneous environments.Clonal architecture and ramet population characteristics are of the major concernin the studies on growth and adaptive strategies of clonal plants. Clonal architecture,ramet population characteristics and spatial point pattern of F. orientalis underdifferent light intensity were studied with field observations. The results showed that,clonal architecture changed with light availability: Internode-lengths and branchangels of stolons were larger while branch intensities were smaller under lower lightintensity than those under higher light intensity; Biomass of ramet population,root-shoot ratio and density of ramet population decreased significantly with reduce oflight intensity; Under all light intensities, spatial pattern of ramets was mainlyrandomly distributed but it changed with different scales, with pattern intensity as:open space < forest edge < understory. Adaptation significance of the clonal architecture, the ramet population characteristics and the spatial pattern changing withdifferent environments was discussed according to these results.Clonal plants may take different adaptive strategies under different patches. Withpot culture, clonal integration and physiological parameters of F. orientalis underdifferent water contrasts were studied, and clonal integration under unilateralresources and reciprocal resources were also compared. The results suggested that,high water contrast improve the clonal integration of F. orientalis and increase thephotosynthesis of connected ramets. Oxidative and antioxidative system of F.orientalis also responded with changing water contrasts. According to cost-benefitanalysis, the drought-stressed ramets obtained benefits from the connectedwell-watered ramets, and as a whole, the clonal fragment could also get benefits.Growth of F. orientalis in homogeneous resources was better than that inheterogeneous resources, but the whole plant got more benefit through clonalintegration in heterogeneous resources than in homogeneous resources.Pot culture experiments were also used to study the adaptive strategies inutilizing heterogeneous resources by the plant populations from different altitudes.The results showed that, F. orientalis from alpine zones were shorter and lessexpanded with poorer clonal plasticity than those from middle mountains. F.orientalis from two different altitudes showed different responses to stolon severing,and as a whole, stolon severing had more influence on F. orientalis from alpine zones.In addition, F. orientalis from alpine zones exhibited higher division of labor, whichsuggested that clonal plants from different habitats develop their own adaptivemechanisms in their clonal integration and division of labor in response toenvironmental heterogeneity.

Highly efficient separation of dsDNA fragments on glass chips by using an ultralow viscosity sieving matrix

A novel protocol has been established to separate dsDNA fragments with high efficiency on glass chips by using an ultralow viscosity sieving matrix with added glucose. Low-molecular-weight hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), with a viscosity nearly equivalent to that of water, was used to electrophoretically separate fluorescent inter-calator-labeled double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) fragments on microfluidic glass chips. In comparison with conventional sieving protocols, low-molecular-weight HPMC as sieving matrix could result in reduced running cost and analysis time, in addition to a comparable separation efficiency of dsDNA fragments. In this paper, the addition of glucose was investigated to enhance the separation of DNA in the lowest viscosity polymer evaluated. The effect of staining dye and field strength were also evaluated. At an applied electric field strength of 200 V/cm, satisfactory resolution of the PBR322/HaeIII DNA marker could be achieved within 4 min by using 2% HPMC-5 with 6% glucose added. Coelectrophoresing PCR product along with phiX174/HaeIII DNA sizing marker was also demonstrated by using the ultralow viscosity HPMC-5 solution on a glass chip.

Characterization of Sarcocystis species in domestic animals using a PCR-RFLP analysis of variation in the 18S rRNA gene: a cost-effective and simple technique for routine species identification

Thirteen restriction endonucleases were used to investigate nucleotide sequence variation in the 18S rRNA DNA of 88 individuals from ten Sarcocystis taxa collected as cysts from their intermediate hosts, swine, cattle and water buffalo. A DNA sequence of