云南中西部地区晚第三纪孢粉植物群及其古植被和古气候研究

晚第三纪是云南地区环境演变过程中的关键地质历史时段，本论文以晚第三纪晚中新世（吕合）、晚上新世（羊邑和龙陵）地层中的孢粉为研究对象，结合同层位大化石植物证据，参照现代植被，恢复了云南三个化石出产地区的古植被垂直分布景观，并定性地描述了古气候;同时运用共存分析方法（The Co-existence Approach）定量化地重建了三个地区的古气候参数值;初步推测了沉积地可能的古海拔。 吕合晚中新世孢粉植物群含52个孢粉类型，隶属38科，其中25个类型鉴定到属级。植物群中被子植物占73.1%，裸子植物占11.5%，蕨类植物占15.4%。 吕合孢粉植物群的组成反映该地区在沉积时期植被具有垂直分带特征，沉积地附近分布有常绿阔叶林，包括壳斗科的青冈属、栲属、石栎属和漆树科等植物，以及多种亚热带和温带阔叶成分;林中混生少量针叶树（如松属和杉科等）;林内蕨类植物较少;距沉积地较远的海拔较高的地区分布由铁杉属、冷杉属、雪松属和云杉属组成的针阔混交林或针叶林。 吕合地区晚中新世的气候参数：年均温：13.3-20.9℃，最热月均温：22.5-27.5℃，最冷月均温：2.5-12.6℃，年较差：12.1-24.8℃，年降雨量：803.6-1254.7mm，最大月降雨量：179.4-281.9mm，最小月降雨量：10.2-18.5mm。 羊邑晚上新世孢粉植物群含52个孢粉类型，隶属32科，其中36个类型鉴定到属级。植物群中被子植物占61.5%，裸子植物占9.6%，蕨类植物占25.0%，藻类植物占3.9%。 羊邑孢粉植物群的组成反映在沉积时期该地区的植被具有明显垂直分带特征。湿性常绿阔叶林分布在沉积地附近，以壳斗科的石栎属、青冈属和栲属为主，混生漆树科、桃金娘科、蓼科、大戟科和金缕梅科的枫香属等植物，林内蕨类植物丰富;针阔叶混交林分布在距沉积地较远海拔较高的山地，主要包括松属，铁杉属，罗汉松属和一些阔叶植物类群;云杉林、冷杉林和铁杉林分布在更高海拔的地区。 根据植物群的组成推测羊邑沉积地的古海拔不高于2000m。 羊邑地区晚上新世的气候参数：年均温：13.3-20.9℃，最热月均温：22.5-27.5℃，最冷月均温：1.9-12.6℃，年较差：12.3-25.8℃，年降雨量：797.5-1254.7mm，最大月降雨量：172.4-249.6mm，最小月降雨量：7.2-12.7mm。 龙陵晚上新世孢粉植物群含86个孢粉类型，隶属61科，其中45个类型鉴定到属级。植物群中被子植物占69.0%，裸子植物占4.6%，蕨类植物占24.1%，藻类植物占2.3%。 龙陵孢粉植物群反映当时沉积地区的植被具有明显垂直分带特征。沉积地附近分布有湿润常绿阔叶林，以壳斗科的青冈属、栲属和石栎属为主，混生杜鹃花科、藤黄科、漆树科和无患子科等植物，林内蕨类植物丰富;在距沉积地较远的高海拔的山地上分布有针阔混交林和针叶林，以松属、云杉属、冷杉属和铁杉属植物为主。 龙陵地区晚上新世的气候参数：年均温 18.6-22.1℃，最热月均温：22.8-27.5℃，最冷月均温：9.7-15.1℃，年较差：12.3-18.1℃，年降雨量：815.8-1254.7mm，最大月降雨量：172.4-249.6mm，最小月降雨量：9.8-11.3mm。 综合吕合、羊邑和龙陵孢粉植物群新研究资料和云南地区已有的第三纪孢粉学资料，云南地区晚第三纪时期孢粉植物群组成相对稳定，均已经反映常绿阔叶林、针阔混交林或针叶林垂直分布的植被景观，具有湿润的山地亚热带气候特点。与我国北方晚第三纪孢粉植物群相比，在对全球气候变化的响应上，云南地区晚第三纪孢粉植物群的变化不如北方显著;与我国南方其它地区晚第三纪孢粉植物群相比，虽然在对全球气候变化的响应均表现出不明显，但云南地区在植物区系组成上更为丰富。

Dynamics of intraseasonal sea level and thermocline variability in the equatorial Atlantic during 2002-03

Satellite and in situ observations in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean during 2002-03 show dominant spectral peaks at 40-60 days and secondary peaks at 10-40 days in sea level and thermocline within the intraseasonal period band (10-80 days). A detailed investigation of the dynamics of the intraseasonal variations is carried out using an ocean general circulation model, namely, the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM). Two parallel experiments are performed in the tropical Atlantic Ocean basin for the period 2000-03: one is forced by daily scatterometer winds from the Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) satellite together with other forcing fields, and the other is forced by the low-passed 80-day version of the above fields. To help in understanding the role played by the wind-driven equatorial waves, a linear continuously stratified ocean model is also used. Within 3 degrees S-3 degrees N of the equatorial region, the strong 40-60-day sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) and thermocline variability result mainly from the first and second baroclinic modes equatorial Kelvin waves that are forced by intraseasonal zonal winds, with the second baroclinic mode playing a more important role. Sharp 40-50-day peaks of zonal and meridional winds appear in both the QuikSCAT and Pilot Research Moored Array in the Tropical Atlantic (PIRATA) data for the period 2002-03, and they are especially strong in 2002. Zonal wind anomaly in the central-western equatorial basin for the period 2000-06 is significantly correlated with SSHA across the equatorial basin, with simultaneous/ lag correlation ranging from-0.62 to 0.74 above 95% significance. Away from the equator (3 degrees-5 degrees N), however, sea level and thermocline variations in the 40-60-day band are caused largely by tropical instability waves (TIWs). On 10-40-day time scales and west of 10 degrees W, the spectral power of sea level and thermocline appears to be dominated by TIWs within 5 degrees S-5 degrees N of the equatorial region. The wind-driven circulation, however, also provides a significant contribution. Interestingly, east of 10 W, SSHA and thermocline variations at 10 40- day periods result almost entirely from wind-driven equatorial waves. During the boreal spring of 2002 when TIWs are weak, Kelvin waves dominate the SSHA across the equatorial basin (2 degrees S-2 degrees N). The observed quasi-biweekly Yanai waves are excited mainly by the quasi-biweekly meridional winds, and they contribute significantly to the SSHA and thermocline variations in 1 degrees-5 degrees N and 1 degrees-5 degrees S regions.

Dynamics of nonlinear error growth and season-dependent predictability of El Nino events in the Zebiak-Cane model

With the intermediate-complexity Zebiak-Cane model, we investigate the 'spring predictability barrier' (SPB) problem for El Nino events by tracing the evolution of conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation (CNOP), where CNOP is superimposed on the El Nino events and acts as the initial error with the biggest negative effect on the El Nino prediction. We show that the evolution of CNOP-type errors has obvious seasonal dependence and yields a significant SPB, with the most severe occurring in predictions made before the boreal spring in the growth phase of El Nino. The CNOP-type errors can be classified into two types: one possessing a sea-surface-temperature anomaly pattern with negative anomalies in the equatorial central-western Pacific, positive anomalies in the equatorial eastern Pacific, and a thermocline depth anomaly pattern with positive anomalies along the Equator, and another with patterns almost opposite to those of the former type. In predictions through the spring in the growth phase of El Nino, the initial error with the worst effect on the prediction tends to be the latter type of CNOP error, whereas in predictions through the spring in the decaying phase, the initial error with the biggest negative effect on the prediction is inclined to be the former type of CNOP error. Although the linear singular vector (LSV)-type errors also have patterns similar to the CNOP-type errors, they cover a more localized area than the CNOP-type errors and cause a much smaller prediction error, yielding a less significant SPB. Random errors in the initial conditions are also superimposed on El Nino events to investigate the SPB. We find that, whenever the predictions start, the random errors neither exhibit an obvious season-dependent evolution nor yield a large prediction error, and thus may not be responsible for the SPB phenomenon for El Nino events. These results suggest that the occurrence of the SPB is closely related to particular initial error patterns. The two kinds of CNOP-type error are most likely to cause a significant SPB. They have opposite signs and, consequently, opposite growth behaviours, a result which may demonstrate two dynamical mechanisms of error growth related to SPB: in one case, the errors grow in a manner similar to El Nino; in the other, the errors develop with a tendency opposite to El Nino. The two types of CNOP error may be most likely to provide the information regarding the 'sensitive area' of El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) predictions. If these types of initial error exist in realistic ENSO predictions and if a target method or a data assimilation approach can filter them, the ENSO forecast skill may be improved. Copyright (C) 2009 Royal Meteorological Society

A comprehensive investigation of an offshore active fault in the Western Sagami Bay, central Japan

Offshore active faults, especially those in the deep sea, are very difficult to study because of the water and sedimentary cover. To characterize the nature and geometry of offshore active faults, a combination of methods must be employed. Generally, seismic profiling is used to map these faults, but often only fault-related folds rather than fracture planes are imaged. Multi-beam swath bathymetry provides information on the structure and growth history of a fault because movements of an active fault are reflected in the bottom morphology. Submersible and deep-tow surveys allow direct observations of deformations on the seafloor (including fracture zones and microstructures). In the deep sea, linearly aligned cold seep communities provide indirect evidence for active faults and the spatial migration of their activities. The Western Sagami Bay fault (WSBF) in the western Sagami Bay off central Japan is an active fault that has been studied in detail using the above methods. The bottom morphology, fractured breccias directly observed and photographed, seismic profiles, as well as distribution and migration of cold seep communities provide evidence for the nature and geometry of the fault. Focal mechanism solutions of selected earthquakes in the western Sagami Bay during the period from 1900 to 1995 show that the maximum compression trends NW-SE and the minimum stress axis strikes NE-SW, a stress pattern indicating a left-lateral strike-slip fault.

He, Ne and Ar isotopic composition of Fe-Mn crusts from the western and central Pacific Ocean and implications for their genesis

The noble gas nuclide abundances and isotopic ratios of the upmost layer of Fe-Mn crusts from the western and central Pacific Ocean have been determined. The results indicate that the He and Ar nuclide abundances and isotopic ratios can be classified into two types: low He-3/He-4 type and high He-3/He-4 type. The low He-3/He-4 type is characterized by high He-4 abundances of 191x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1) on average, with variable He-4, Ne-20 and Ar-40 abundances in the range (42.8-421)x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1), (5.40-141)x10(-9)cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1), and (773-10976)x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1), respectively. The high He-3/He-4 samples are characterized by low He-4 abundances of 11.7x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1) on average, with He-4, Ne-20 and Ar-40 abundances in the range of (7.57-17.4)x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1), (110.4-25.5)x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1) and (5354-9050)x10(-9) cm(3.)STP(.)g(-1), respectively. The low He-3/He-4 samples have He-3/He-4 ratios (with RIRA ratios of 2.04-2.92) which are lower than those of MORB (R/R-A=8 +/- 1) and Ar-40/Ar-36 ratios (447-543) which are higher than those of air (295.5). The high He-3/He-4 samples have He-3/He-4 ratios (with R/R-A ratios of 10.4-12.0) slightly higher than those of MORB (R/R-A=8 +/- 1) and Ar-40/Ar-36 ratios (293-299) very similar to those of air (295.5). The Ne isotopic ratios (Ne-20/Ne-22 and Ne-21/Ne-22 ratios of 10.3-10.9 and 0.02774-0.03039, respectively) and the Ar-38/Ar-36 ratios (0.1886-0.1963) have narrow ranges which are very similar to those of air (the Ne-20/Ne-22, Ne-21/Ne-22, Ar-38/Ar-36 ratios of 9.80, 0.029 and 0.187, respectively), and cannot be differentiated into different groups. The noble gas nuclide abundances and isotopic ratios, together with their regional variability, suggest that the noble gases in the Fe-Mn crusts originate primarily from the lower mantle. The low He-3/He-4 type and high He-3/He-4 type samples have noble gas characteristics similar to those of HIMU (High U/Pb Mantle)- and EM (Enriched Mantle)-type mantle material, respectively. The low He-3/He-4 type samples with HIMU-type noble gas isotopic ratios occur in the Magellan Seamounts, Marcus-Wake Seamounts, Marshall Island Chain and the Mid-Pacific Seamounts whereas the high He-3/He-4 type samples with EM-type noble gas isotopic ratios occur in the Line Island Chain. This difference in noble gas characteristics of these crust types implies that the Magellan Seamounts, Marcus-Wake Seamounts, Marshall Island Chain, and the Mid-Pacific Seamounts originated from HIMU-type lower mantle material whereas the Line Island Chain originated from EM-type lower mantle material. This finding is consistent with variations in the Pb-isotope and trace element signatures in the seamount lavas. Differences in the mantle surce may therefore be responsible for variations in the noble gas abundances and isotopic ratios in the Fe-Mn crusts. Mantle degassing appears to be the principal factor controlling noble gas isotopic abundances in Fe-Mn crusts. Decay of radioactive isotopes has a negligible influence on the nuclide abundances and isotopic ratios of noble gases in these crusts on the timescale of their formation.

Spatial variations of size-fractionated chlorophyll, cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria in the Central and Western Pacific

Geographic and vertical variations of size-fractionated (0.2-1 mu m, 1-10 mu m, and >10 mu m) Chlorophyll a (Chl.a) concentration, cyanobacteria abundance and heterotrophic bacteria abundance were investigated at 13 stations from 4 degrees S, 160 degrees W to 30 degrees N, 140 degrees E in November 1993. The results indicated a geographic distribution pattern of these parameters with instances of high values occurring in the equatorial region and offshore areas, and with instance of low values occurring in the oligotrophic regions where nutrients were almost undetectable. Cyanobacteria showed the highest geographic variation (ranging from 27x10(3) to 16,582x10(3) cell l(-1)), followed by Chl.a (ranging from 0.048 to 0.178 mu g l(-1)), and heterotrophic bacteria (ranging from 2.84x10(3) to 6.50 x 10(5) cell l(-1)). Positive correlations were observed between nutrients and Chl.a abundance. Correspondences of cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria abundances to nutrients were less significant than that of Chl.a. The total Chl.a was accounted for 1.0-30.9%, 35.9-53.7%, and 28.1-57.3% by the >10 mu m, 1-10 mu m and 0.2-1 mu m fractions respectively. Correlation between size-fractionated Chl.a and nutrients suggest that the larger the cell size, the more nutrient-dependent growth and production of the organism. The ratio of pheophytin to chlorophyll implys that more than half of the > 10 mu m and about one third of the 1-10 mu m pigment-containing particles in the oligotrophic region were non-living fragments, while most of the 1-10 mu m fraction was living cells. In the depth profiles, cyanobacteria were distributed mainly in the surface layer, whereas heterotrophic bacteria were abundant from surface to below the euphotic zone. Chl.a peaked at the surface layer (0-20 m) in the equatorial area and at the nitracline (75-100 m) in the oligotrophic regions. Cyanobacteria were not the principle component of the picoplankton. The carbon biomass ratio of heterotroph to phytoplankton was greater than 1 in the eutrophic area and lower than 1 in oligotrophic waters.

Roles of equatorial waves and western boundary reflection in the seasonal circulation of the equatorial Indian Ocean

An ocean general circulation model (OGCM) is used to study the roles of equatorial waves and western boundary reflection in the seasonal circulation of the equatorial Indian Ocean. The western boundary reflection is defined as the total Kelvin waves leaving the western boundary, which include the reflection of the equatorial Rossby waves as well as the effects of alongshore winds, off-equatorial Rossby waves, and nonlinear processes near the western boundary. The evaluation of the reflection is based on a wave decomposition of the OGCM results and experiments with linear models. It is found that the alongshore winds along the east coast of Africa and the Rossby waves in the off-equatorial areas contribute significantly to the annual harmonics of the equatorial Kelvin waves at the western boundary. The semiannual harmonics of the Kelvin waves, on the other hand, originate primarily from a linear reflection of the equatorial Rossby waves. The dynamics of a dominant annual oscillation of sea level coexisting with the dominant semiannual oscillations of surface zonal currents in the central equatorial Indian Ocean are investigated. These sea level and zonal current patterns are found to be closely related to the linear reflections of the semiannual harmonics at the meridional boundaries. Because of the reflections, the second baroclinic mode resonates with the semiannual wind forcing; that is, the semiannual zonal currents carried by the reflected waves enhance the wind-forced currents at the central basin. Because of the different behavior of the zonal current and sea level during the reflections, the semiannual sea levels of the directly forced and reflected waves cancel each other significantly at the central basin. In the meantime, the annual harmonic of the sea level remains large, producing a dominant annual oscillation of sea level in the central equatorial Indian Ocean. The linear reflection causes the semiannual harmonics of the incoming and reflected sea levels to enhance each other at the meridional boundaries. In addition, the weak annual harmonics of sea level in the western basin, resulting from a combined effect of the western boundary reflection and the equatorial zonal wind forcing, facilitate the dominance by the semiannual harmonics near the western boundary despite the strong local wind forcing at the annual period. The Rossby waves are found to have a much larger contribution to the observed equatorial semiannual oscillations of surface zonal currents than the Kelvin waves. The westward progressive reversal of seasonal surface zonal currents along the equator in the observations is primarily due to the Rossby wave propagation.