223 resultados para DIVERGENCE


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兰科植物精巧的花部结构及其独特的传粉机制为自然选择理论和异花受粉优势学说提供了强有力的证据。开展兰科植物的传粉生态学研究对进一步探讨植物进化中的一些关键问题(如生殖隔离、物种形成、适应和繁育系统进化等)具有重要意义。本文通过对独花兰 (Changnienia amoena) 和扇脉杓兰 (Cypripedium japonicum) 两种兰科植物进行植物与传粉者之间关系、种内形态变异、花粉散布等方面的研究,探讨其适应进化方式、传粉系统的进化趋势,同时为开发适用的分子标记,在独花兰中初步摸索和探讨了微卫星标记的分离。主要研究结果如下: 1. 濒危植物独花兰的传粉生态学 在神农架2个地点进行了连续2年的野外观测和实验。结果表明,独花兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在2个地点独花兰的传粉者种类不同,在龙门河三条熊蜂 (Bombus (Diversobombus) trifasciatus) 是主要传粉者,在关门山仿熊蜂 (B. (Tricornibombus) imitator) 是唯一的传粉者。尽管它们出现的丰度和觅食行为不同,但其传粉行为和携粉部位非常相同,因此,可以看作是一个功能群(functional group)。从种群水平上看,开花个体的分布式样不是显著的偏斜曲线图,传粉者的有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。由于没有花蜜,传粉者在花内停留的时间很短,花粉块输出和传粉发生在熊蜂劳而无获的访问、退出花时。自然条件下,独花兰的结实率很低,只有6%-12%,并呈现明显的年份和地点变化。传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因。与同亚族近缘种布袋兰相比,分布于中国中部的独花兰受冰期的影响很小,其传粉环境相对稳定,在进化历史中,形成了一种稳定的传粉系统。本研究结果纠正了前人对独花兰繁殖方式的错误认识,并为其保护策略的制订提供了重要资料。 2. 独花兰种群大小、传粉者访问和花粉流 为了检验独花兰种群大小、空间格局与传粉者访问之间的关系,连续2年对10个独花兰种群的花粉块输出和输入进行了统计分析,同时对花粉块进行标记研究其散布式样。结果显示,花粉块输出比例与种群大小之间关系在2003年呈显著负相关,但在2004年这种负相关关系不显著。尽管独花兰的空间分布格局在不同种群不同,但传粉者的访问除了在有蜂巢的种群为聚集式访问外,其余种群内均为随机访问式样。花粉块的散布式样呈尖峰态分布,多数花粉块散布很短的距离,少数散布较远。花粉块的平均散布距离在龙门河为7.3 m,在关门山为10.6 m。由于各种群之间相隔很远,种群之间花粉块交流受到限制,很少有种群外的花粉块输入。花粉块传递只在种群内近缘个体中进行,有可能导致种内遗传或形态分化。 3. 独花兰种内形态变异及其适应意义 对庐山、新宁和神农架3个地点15个独花兰自然种群的形态变异进行了研究,探讨了形态多样性水平和地理变异式样及其可能的适应机制。结果表明,在物种水平上独花兰形态性状存在丰富的变异。单因素方差分析显示3个地区间多个形态性状存在极显著差异(P<0.01),UPGMA聚类分析也表明这3个地区分别形成明显不同的分支,说明3个地区种群植物形态已经出现分化。在神农架地区,龙门河和关门山两个地点间出现明显的形态分化,而这两个地点的传粉者在形体大小表现出显著差异。适合度与形态性状之间的相关性分析显示,独花兰种内形态分化是以传粉者为媒介的自然选择作用的结果。移栽实验显示,本地传粉者对本地和移栽种群花的访问表现出一定的选择性。 4. 扇脉杓兰的传粉生态学研究 与独花兰同域分布、花期不遇的扇脉杓兰是杓兰属的一个特殊类群,具有典型“Japonicum”型唇瓣类型。对神农架6个种群连续两年野外观测和实验结果表明,扇脉杓兰是一种自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。在种群水平上开花个体的分布式样呈显著的偏斜曲线图,在短时间内迅速到达盛花期。扇脉杓兰的传粉者是三种熊蜂,其访问频次很低,访问时间很短,有效访问主要集中在开花的前、中期。自然结实率只有4.3%-8.5%,人工授粉实验证明,传粉者限制是结实率低的主要原因,且传粉者限制程度在花期不同阶段和不同地点存在差异。对欺骗性植物聚集生长、开花有利于吸引传粉者这一假说进行检验,结果显示,克隆群丛大小与传粉者有效访问(花粉块输出比例)呈弱负相关关系。聚集生长的结实率与分散生长的没有显著差异,说明繁殖成功与开花个体的密度无关。扇脉杓兰的花粉集结为未蜡质化的花粉块,是杓兰属中粘质花粉和蜡质花粉块的中间进化类型。传粉生态学和形态学证据显示C. acaule和扇脉杓兰是东亚-北美间断分布的姐妹种对。 5. 独花兰微卫星位点的分离 为了深入研究独花兰种群的基因流和交配系统,用Dynabeads和选择性杂交法分离微卫星位点、筛选引物。首先将基因组DNA用合适的内切酶消化为400-1000 bp大小的片段,然后用生物素标记的简单重复寡核苷酸序列做探针与其杂交,杂交复合物用抗生链霉素蛋白包裹的磁珠吸附,经过一系列洗脱、沉淀,得到富含重复片段的DNA,然后在进行克隆、测序,利用SSR两侧翼区设计引物,经过多态性分析可得到微卫星标记。结果显示,35个克隆序列中18个(51.4%)含有重复片段(SSRs),说明用Dynabeads富集效率明显高于传统方法。到目前为止所得引物共4对。这一实验方法的探索为以后分离杓兰属等兰科植物微卫星位点、进而进行群体遗传学研究奠定了一定的基础。

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稻属Oryza隶属禾本科Poaceae,包括20多个野生种和2个栽培种(亚洲栽培稻O. sativa L和非洲栽培稻O. glaberrima Steud) ,广泛分布于全球热带和亚热带。稻属物种可划分为10个基因组(又称染色体组)类型:A, B, C, BC, CD, E, F, G, HJ 和 HK。栽培稻所属的A基因组是稻属中物种数目最多、地理分布最广的基因组类型,由8个种组成。由于栽培稻属于A基因组,故A基因组物种是栽培稻遗传改良的巨大基因源。数十年来,国际上许多学者对A基因组类群开展了大量涉及形态、细胞、同工酶和分子标记方面的研究,但由于A基因组物种间遗传关系十分接近,形态上差异小且地理分布重叠,使得A基因组物种的系统发育、物种起源和生物地理学等方面存在诸多悬而未决的问题,是稻属中分类和鉴定困难较多的类群。本文利用核基因内含子序列,结合转座子插入分析,重建了A基因组的系统发育,估测了各类群的分化时间;与此同时,基于多克隆测序和基因谱系分析,探讨了O. rufipogon和O. nivara遗传关系以及亚洲栽培稻起源。主要研究结果如下: 1. A基因组的系统发育 在水稻全基因组数据库搜索的基础上,测定了4个单拷贝核基因(Adh1 及3个未注释基因)的内含子序列,构建了稻属A基因组8个种的系统发育关系。基于最大简约法和贝叶斯法的系统发育分析表明:1)澳大利亚的O. meridionalis为A基因组的基部类群;2)亚洲栽培稻两个亚种O. sativa ssp. japonica 和 O. sativa ssp. indica分别和不同的野生类群聚为独立的两个分支,支持japonica 和 indica为多次起源;3)O. rufipogon和O. nivara在系统发育树上完全混在一起,显示出二者间不存在遗传分化;4)非洲一年生野生种O. barthii是非洲栽培稻O. glaberrima的祖先,而非洲多年生野生种O. longistaminata与O. glaberrima/O. barthii.亲缘关系较远;5)分子钟方法估测A基因组类群约在2百万年前(2.0MYA)开始分化,亚洲栽培稻和非洲栽培稻,以及亚洲栽培稻的两个亚种则分别在0.7和 0.4 MYA左右开始分化。此外,通过核基因内含子序列与其它常用片段如ITS,matK等对比分析表明,进化速率相对较快的核基因内含子序列可以有效地用于近缘类群的系统发育研究。 2. Oryza rufipogon 和O. nivara群体遗传研究及亚洲栽培稻起源 对于亚洲野生类群O. rufipogon和O. nivara是合并为一个种还是处理为两个独立的种一直存在争议。在系统发育研究基础上,我们选取4个核基因内含子或5’-UTR区(Waxy, LHS,CatA和1个未注释基因),对采自整个分布区的群体样品进行了多克隆测序,结果表明:1)检测到O. rufipogon和O. nivara均有较高的核苷酸多态性,4个位点上π值和θw值平均分别为0.011和0.014;2)且二者在遗传上没有明显分化,两个类群在4个核基因位点上均检测到大量共享多态(shared polymorphism),未发现固有差异(fixed difference),表明它们历史上可能属于一个大群体,支持将二者作为种内不同生态型或亚种处理;3)基因谱系树表明亚洲栽培稻的两个亚种indica和japonica分别和不同的O. rufipogon (包括O. nivara)群体聚在一起,进一步从基因谱系角度支持亚洲栽培稻多次起源假说。 3.转座子在群体遗传与系统发育研究中的应用 鉴于目前植物谱系地理学研究中缺乏具有足够信息量的分子标记用于检测种内遗传变异,我们选取3个核基因中的转座子,通过对取自O. rufipogon和O. nivara整个分布区的37份样品的克隆测序,探讨了进化速率快、信息含量丰富的转座子序列在群体遗传上的应用。结果表明:1)无论在物种水平还是群体水平,转座子能检测到比包括内含子在内的其它DNA区域高得多的遗传变异;2)在物种水平上,异交多年生的O. rufipogon和自交一年生的O. nivara多样性均较高,且2个种间相差很小,二者在3个位点上平均核苷酸多样性π值均为0.013,差别主要表现在O. rufipogon杂合位点比例(46.1%)明显高于O. nivara(9.1%),说明交配系统不同并不一定和物种多样性水平相关;3)是否发生转座子序列插入是有价值的系统发育信息,发生在不同染色体上3个基因中的转座子插入进一步证实A基因组基部类群是O. meridionalis;通过叶绿体中3个转座子的插入现象推断了稻族一些四倍体物种,如稻属BC基因组的一些类群的母本来源。

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在植物中大多数功能基因是以基因家族的形式存在的,而基因重复则是基因家族的一种重要的进化方式。很多基因往往是由重复事件产生形成不同的拷贝,进而分化形成基因家族。谷胱甘肽转移酶(GSTs)是一类古老、庞大、行使解毒、抗逆、信号转导等多种功能的一个基因家族。本研究以栽培水稻(Oryza sativa ssp. japonica c.v. Nipponbare)为研究材料,以栽培水稻的Phi类GST的5个基因(OsGSTF3、OsGSTF6、OsGSTF14、OsGSTF15、OsGSTF16)为研究对象,分析了它们的系统发生和起源历史、不同组织的差异性表达、编码蛋白质的功能差异等问题,探讨了基因重复后5个基因的功能变化,主要结果如下: 1. OsGSTF3、OsGSTF14、OsGSTF15、OsGSTF16由串联重复产生,而OsGSTF6则由DNA转座产生;它们起源时间早在稻属(Oryza)分化之前。 2. 对水稻不同部位组织的RT-PCR结果表明这5个基因在水稻中的特异性表达组织部位有较大差异:OsGSTF3基因在叶、叶鞘、茎、根4个部位均有大量表达;OsGSTF6基因仅在叶中有表达;OsGSTF14基因在叶鞘、茎2个部位中有表达;OsGSTF15基因在茎、根2个部位中有表达;OsGSTF16则在叶、茎、根3个部位中有表达。 3. 将这5个基因连接原核表达载体PET30a并转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),获得了高表达菌株。将表达菌株进行大量表达,表达形式分析显示OsGSTF3蛋白是可溶性表达,而其余4个蛋白以包涵体的形式表达。通过亲和层析获得了纯化的OsGSTF3融合蛋白,OsGSTF3融合蛋白对底物CDNB和NBD-Cl具有高活性,酶动力学分析显示OsGSTF3融合蛋白对GSH与NBD-Cl有较高的亲和力,热力学分析显示该蛋白在40℃以下是热稳定的。通过对包涵体进行洗涤、亲和层析获得了纯化的OsGSTF6、OsGSTF14、OsGSTF15、OsGSTF16的融合蛋白,OsGSTF14融合蛋白对NBD-Cl有微弱活性,OsGSTF15融合蛋白对NBC有较高的活性,而没有检测到OsGSTF6与OsGSTF16融合蛋白的活性。

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OsPRP1是水稻中特有的,编码一类富含脯氨酸蛋白(proline-rich protein, PRP)的基因家族,该家族有4个成员。在GenBank中,仅找到了一个结构相对接近的玉米PRP蛋白,但是对它的研究仅限于序列上的某些描述,而且在序列上,仍然与这4个OsPRP1蛋白有明显的差别。OsPRP1蛋白明显有别于前人(1999)所描述的4类PRP蛋白。它们是植物中一类新的小分子量的PRP蛋白,仅有一个保守结构域而属于DUF1210蛋白超家族的成员。 四个OsPRP1基因在基因组中紧密串联排列,而且编码区高度保守,基因结构也高度一致,证明它们来源于同一个祖先基因,是通过基因复制的方式产生的。PAML分析也证明它们在进化时间上的相互距离并不远。而在进化过程中由于执行生理功能上的某种重要性,在编码区表现出很的保守性,因而很难在RNA水平和蛋白水平上研究四个OsPRP1基因的表达差异。但是它们在表达调节区(如启动子区)显示出明显的差异。在克隆启动子的基础上,用GUS报告基因的策略,没有检测到它们在拟南芥中的表达活性,说明它们具有一定的种属特异性。而在水稻中,这四个基因的表达显示出了明显的时序和空间差异,既表现出在组织器官及其发育阶段上的特异性和变化,又在一定程度上表现出交叉,出现了功能上的分化和重叠。根据启动子区上的顺式元件,检测了这些基因对6种植物生长调节物质和3种非生物胁迫因子的应答反应,证明它们的表达调节也表现出显著的差异和分化。因此,四个基因的进化出现了功能退化、亚功能化和产生新功能等多种命运,比理论模型预期的要复杂得多,可能在执行生理功能和对环境反应上具有各自的生物学意义。 植物细胞壁是多种碳水化合物和蛋白质相互交织在一起的亲水性网络。在保护和支撑原生质、细胞通信、细胞分化、细胞对生物的和非生物胁迫的抗性等方面发挥着重要作用。目前已知的大多数植物PRP蛋白被描述成细胞壁结构性蛋白。OsPRP1基因家族编码的蛋白质都有一个N-端信号肽,暗示它们可能是一类分泌蛋白。我们用OsPRP1.1::GFP融合蛋白进行了亚细胞定位,证明了OsPRP1蛋白的确也是细胞壁相关蛋白。用原核表达体系表达了GST-融合蛋白,制备抗体,通过免疫印迹证明这些蛋白不溶于温和的提取缓冲溶液中,但可以被高盐和强碱溶液溶解,且分子量增加了三倍。证明在体内可能出现修饰、与细胞壁其它组分相交联的现象。 在这四个基因中,只有OsPRP1.2能够在水稻根中特异表达。根的原位杂交实验证明,OsPRP1在分化成熟程度低的细胞中大量表达,而在分化成熟程度高的细胞中几乎不表达。GUS染色的结果同样发现,基因在维管柱特别是中柱鞘附近的薄壁细胞的表达比别的细胞要强得多,而且在根的生长方向上表现出与发育相关的表达特征。说明OsPRP1基因可能参与了这些细胞的分化、发育过程。而基因表达的组织器官特异性的差异和对不同刺激因素的不同反应意味着它们可能参与了多种生理过程。为此构建了一个RNAi的表达载体,转化水稻,Southern杂交实验得到9个单位点插入的T2代独立株系,其中有6个株系与野生型对照相比,主根的早期伸长受到显著抑制,主根的一级侧根地数量减少,根尖分生区的细胞在轴向上的伸长受到了抑制。结合表达定位和原位杂交的结果,我们对它们在植物生长发育中的功能进行了深入探讨。

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休眠是温带多年生植物的特性之一。为了适应温带地区寒冷的冬季,多年生植物的分生组织通常在秋末冬初进入休眠状态,这样有利于它们在低温下的存活。因此,温带多年生植物的生长和开花具有季节性。植物的生长发育需要与季节的交替变化同步,才能适应环境,保证繁殖成功。多年生植物通过“生长-休眠-生长”的循环过程适应温带地区寒冷的冬季。休眠既有利于植物存活又可调节开花时间。因此,探索温带多年生植物休眠过程的分子调控机理具有重要的应用价值。 太行花(Taihangia rupestris)是蔷薇科仙女木族的一种多年生草本。它生长在海拔1000到1200米的温带山区。太行花需要两个生长季节才能开花,这一点与模式植物拟南芥、水稻不同。在第一个生长季节花芽诱导,花序发育到秋末冬初时进入休眠状态;过冬花序包裹在叶柄基部,接近土壤表面;到了第二个生长季节,花进一步发育完全,开花结果。休眠过程对太行花花序的存活以及来年的开花时间控制非常关键,对这个过程的调控基因的研究不仅有助于理解太行花休眠的分子机制,还将为其它经济植物在这个方面的研究提供资料。 本研究以太行花为研究材料,从它的过冬花序中分离得到了一个MADS-box基因,分析了它的序列结构、系统发育关系、表达式样和功能,探讨了FLC亚家族基因在太行花这种多年生植物和一年生、两年生植物之间发生的表达功能分化。主要研究结果包括: 1. 从太行花的过冬花序中分离出了TrMADS3基因。氨基酸序列分析结果表明它是MIKCc型MADS-box基因,系统发育分析结果表明TrMADS3与FLC类基因聚在一起。 2. 实时定量PCR和RT-PCR实验显示TrMADS3在冬季休眠期太行花的花序、根、叶中广泛表达。从十月底到一月底的冬季低温期户外太行花植株中TrMADS3表达量比同期温室植株的表达量高,也比夏季户外植株的表达量高。对温室植株进行低温处理能明显上调TrMADS3的表达量,而短光照、干旱、高盐和脱落酸(ABA)处理对TrMADS3的表达影响不明显。 3. 用原位杂交的方法分析了TrMADS3的表达式样。营养器官中,TrMADS3在营养顶端分生组织、叶原基、幼叶边缘细胞中表达量高;生殖器官中,TrMADS3在侧生分生组织、花序原基、花原基、幼苞片、萼片原基、花瓣原基、雄蕊原基、心皮原基、发育中的雄蕊、心皮中表达量高。TrMADS3的表达模式反映了TrMADS3调控营养生长和不同阶段的花序、花发育过程。 4. TrMADS3在拟南芥中异位表达不影响拟南芥开花时间。在高盐和干旱胁迫条件下,TrMADS3异位表达能够明显提高转基因拟南芥后熟种子的萌发率。 5. 建立了太行花的组培体系。 综上所述,TrMADS3属于FLC进化支,这一亚家族基因还未在多年生植物中报道。TrMADS3在太行花休眠期表达量很高。在实验控制条件下,一至两周低温能够明显促进TrMADS3表达量的上调。低温处理后回到生长温度的太行花在一月内依然保持较高的TrMADS3的表达。原位杂交实验显示TrMADS3在营养和生殖分生组织中表达量高。TrMADS3在拟南芥中异位表达促进后熟种子在高盐和干旱胁迫下萌发。因此,我们推测TrMADS3具有响应低温调节太行花休眠期营养和生殖分生组织活性的功能。在一、二年生植物中分离的FLC-like基因响应春化作用,具有抑制花芽诱导的保守功能,这些基因在营养器官中表达,受春化作用调节,对应一、二年生植物的成花诱导受春化作用促进的过程,但TrMADS3在太行花营养和生殖器官中均表达,对应太行花花芽诱导后营养和生殖器官均进入休眠状态的生理特性,因此,我们推测FLC-like基因有可能在太行花这种温带多年生植物和一、二年生植物之间发生功能分化。

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We examined protein polymorphism of Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla) from Yunnan Province of China, including two forms of three brown and nine dusky Chinese pangolins. Sixty-two genetic loci were screened; 12 loci were found to be polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphic loci (P) is 0.194, the mean individual heterozygosity (H) is 0.078, and the mean number of alleles (A) is 1.258. Furthermore, we calculated the genetic distance (D) between the two forms and found a low level of genetic divergence (D = 0.0206) between them, which indicates an almost-indistinguishable divergence at the level of proteins.

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Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide abundantly expressed in the central nervous system and involved in regulating neurogenesis and neuronal signal transduction. The amino acid sequence of PACAP is extremely conserved across vertebrate species, indicating a strong functional constraint during the course of evolution. However, through comparative sequence analysis, we demonstrated that the PACAP precursor gene underwent an accelerated evolution in the human lineage since the divergence from chimpanzees, and the amino acid substitution rate in humans is at least seven times faster than that in other mammal species resulting from strong Darwinian positive selection. Eleven human-specific amino acid changes were identified in the PACAP precursors, which are conserved from murine to African apes. Protein structural analysis suggested that a putative novel Deuropeptide might have originated during human evolution and functioned in the human brain. Our data suggested that the PACAP precursor gene underwent adaptive changes during human origin and may have contributed to the formation of human cognition.

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The difference in cognitive skills between humans and nonhuman primates is one of the major characters that define our own species. It was previously hypothesized that this divergence might be attributable to genetic differences at gene expression level,

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NYD-SP12 is a recently identified spermatogenesis-related gene with a pivotal role in human testis development. In this study, we analyzed between-species divergence and within-species variation of NYD-SP12 in seven representative primate species, four wo

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To understand the genetic basis that underlies the phenotypic divergence between human and non-human primates, we screened a total of 7176 protein-coding genes expressed in the human brain and compared them with the chimpanzee orthologs to identity genes

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Background: Due to the advances of high throughput technology and data-collection approaches, we are now in an unprecedented position to understand the evolution of organisms. Great efforts have characterized many individual genes responsible for the interspecies divergence, yet little is known about the genome-wide divergence at a higher level. Modules, serving as the building blocks and operational units of biological systems, provide more information than individual genes. Hence, the comparative analysis between species at the module level would shed more light on the mechanisms underlying the evolution of organisms than the traditional comparative genomics approaches. Results: We systematically identified the tissue-related modules using the iterative signature algorithm (ISA), and we detected 52 and 65 modules in the human and mouse genomes, respectively. The gene expression patterns indicate that all of these predicted modules have a high possibility of serving as real biological modules. In addition, we defined a novel quantity, "total constraint intensity,'' a proxy of multiple constraints (of co-regulated genes and tissues where the co-regulation occurs) on the evolution of genes in module context. We demonstrate that the evolutionary rate of a gene is negatively correlated with its total constraint intensity. Furthermore, there are modules coding the same essential biological processes, while their gene contents have diverged extensively between human and mouse. Conclusions: Our results suggest that unlike the composition of module, which exhibits a great difference between human and mouse, the functional organization of the corresponding modules may evolve in a more conservative manner. Most importantly, our findings imply that similar biological processes can be carried out by different sets of genes from human and mouse, therefore, the functional data of individual genes from mouse may not apply to human in certain occasions.

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The regional distribution of an ancient Y-chromosome haplogroup C-M130 (Hg C) in Asia provides an ideal tool of dissecting prehistoric migration events. We identified 465 Hg C individuals out of 4284 males from 140 East and Southeast Asian populations. We genotyped these Hg C individuals using 12 Y-chromosome biallelic markers and 8 commonly used Y-short tandem repeats (Y-STRs), and performed phylogeographic analysis in combination with the published data. The results show that most of the Hg C subhaplogroups have distinct geographical distribution and have undergone long-time isolation, although Hg C individuals are distributed widely across Eurasia. Furthermore, a general south-to-north and east-to-west cline of Y-STR diversity is observed with the highest diversity in Southeast Asia. The phylogeographic distribution pattern of Hg C supports a single coastal 'Out-of-Africa' route by way of the Indian subcontinent, which eventually led to the early settlement of modern humans in mainland Southeast Asia. The northward expansion of Hg C in East Asia started similar to 40 thousand of years ago (KYA) along the coastline of mainland China and reached Siberia similar to 15 KYA and finally made its way to the Americas. Journal of Human Genetics (2010) 55, 428-435; doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.40; published online 7 May 2010

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As an endangered animal group, musk deer (genus Moschus) are not only a great concern of wildlife conservation, but also of special interest to evolutionary studies due to long-standing arguments on the taxonomic and phylogenetic associations in this group. Using museum samples, we sequenced complete mitochondrial cytochrome b genes (1140 bp) of all suggested species of musk deer in order to reconstruct their phylogenetic history through molecular information. Our results showed that the cytochrome b gene tree is rather robust and concurred for all the algorithms employed (parsimony, maximum likelihood, and distance methods). Further, the relative rate test indicated a constant sequence substitution rate among all the species, permitting the dating of divergence events by molecular clock. According to the molecular topology, M. moschiferus branched off the earliest from a common ancestor of musk deer (about 700,000 years ago); then followed the bifurcation forming the M. berezouskii lineage and the lineage clustering M. fuscus, M. chrysogaster, and M. leucogaster (around 370,000 years before present), interestingly the most recent speciation event in musk deer happened rather recently (140,000 years ago), which might have resulted from the diversified habitats and geographic barriers in southwest China caused by gigantic movements of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in history. Combining the data of current distributions, fossil records, and molecular data of this study, we suggest that the historical dispersion of musk deer might be from north to south in China. Additionally, in our further analyses involving other pecora species, musk deer was strongly supported as a monophyletic group and a valid family in Artiodactyla, closely related to Cervidae. (C) 1999 Academic Press.

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A transmembrane protein gene, c1orf37-dup, was identified as a young gene specific to humans. It was derived from the conserved c1orf37 gene through retroposition after the divergence of human and chimpanzee. This gene has evolved rapidly driven by positi

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The phylogenetic relationships among worldwide species of genus Ochotona were investigated by sequencing mitochondrial cytochrome b and ND4 genes. Parsimony and neighbor-joining analyses of the sequence data yielded congruent results that strongly indicated three major clusters: the shrub-steppe group, the northern group, and the mountain group. The subgeneric classification of Ochotona species needs to be revised because each of the two subgenera in the present classification contains species from the mountain group. To solve this taxonomic problem so that each taxon is monophyletic, i.e., represents a natural clade, Ochotona could be divided into three subgenera, one for the shrub-steppe species, a second for the northern species, and a third for the mountain species. The inferred tree suggests that the differentiation of this genus in the Palearctic Region was closely related to the gradual uplifting of the Tibet (Qinghai-Xizang) Plateau, as hypothesized previously, and that vicariance might have played a major role in the differentiation of this genus on the Plateau, On the other hand, the North American species, O. princeps, is most likely a dispersal event, which might have happened during the Pliocene through the opening of the Bering Strait. The phylogenetic relationships within the shrub-steppe group are worth noting in that instead of a monophyletic shrub-dwelling group, shrub dwellers and steppe dwellers are intermingled with each other. Moreover, the sequence divergence within the sister tars of one steppe? dweller and one shrub dweller is very low. These findings support the hypothesis that pikes have entered the steppe environment several times and that morphological similarities within steppe dwellers were due to convergent evolution. (C) 2000 Academic Press.