玉米农田水热碳通量动态及其环境控制机理研究

陆地生态系统与大气之间的水热碳交换是物质、能量循环的关键过程，一直以来都为研究者们所关注。进入20 世纪以来，特别是随着人们对全球气候变暖的逐步认识，气候变化对水热碳交换过程的影响及其对气候变化的响应研究更加备受关注。本研究以2004~2006 年近三年的涡度相关系统连续观测数据为依托，分析了雨养玉米农田水热碳通量的动态及其影响因子。研究表明，玉米农田水热通量(WHF) 呈显著的单峰型日变化， 日最大值出现在正午12:00~13:00，WHF 变化同步。潜热通量(LE)的季节变化规律与日变化相似，冬季小夏季大，年最大值与最小值分别出现在7 月和1 月。显热通量(Hs) 季节变化也呈单峰型，但年最大值出现在5 月，这主要与降水以及作物生长有关。半小时尺度上，WHF 主要受辐射控制，而日峰值受辐射峰值以及植被生长的双重影响；日尺度上，只要有降水过程，Hs 就会随土壤水分的增大而减小，降水停止后逐渐恢复。而降水对LE 的影响受到可用能量(AE)的干扰，表现出复杂的变化趋势。总的来说，降水持续时间越长AE 越少，对LE 的抑制越大；季节尺度上，WHF 受热量与水分的双重制约。Hs 随着天气回暖后第一次较大降水过程的出现呈现明显下降，而LE 则呈现相反的变化趋势。随着雨季到来和作物的生长，Hs 在7 月出现低谷，而LE 呈现相反的趋势随着降水量的增加而增大；年际间WHF 的分布规律大体一致，但因气象条件等的差异，特别是降水的差异造成年际间WHF 略有不同。在不同水文年型下，水分因子的影响作用有显著差异，且WHF 对热量与水分条件变化的敏感程度也不相同。欠水年，水分因子的作用更显著，是制约WHF 变化的主要控制因子，WHF 对水分的变化更敏感；而丰水年，水分因子的影响减弱，热量的盈亏决定着WHF 变化的主要方向。在不同水文年型下，水热碳通量对水热条件的变化表现出不同的响应方式，为研究生态系统对气候变化的响应提供了参考。 净碳(C)吸收期，玉米农田净碳交换(NEE)呈显著的日变化，在日出以后由CO2 释放转变为CO2 吸收，12:30 左右达到一天中的吸收峰值，日落前出现相反的转换。而净C 释放期内，NEE 均为正值且无明显日变化。NEE 季节变化也呈单峰型二次曲线，在7 月下旬或8 月上旬达到年最大吸收率。根据NEE 的正负，一年分为三个阶段：两个C 排放期与一个C 吸收期。一般C 吸收期从6月开始到9 月结束，此前此后均为C 排放期。在半小时、日时间尺度上，光通量密度(PPFD)与NEE 有着相似的变化规律，是控制NEE 的主要因子；在日、季节尺度上，叶面积指数(LAI)和气孔导度(gs)是影响NEE 的主要生物因子，且gs 的影响程度随着发育期的变化而变化，而不同年份间LAI 对NEE 的影响没有显著的差异。几乎在所有时间步长上，土壤温度(Ts)均为生态系统呼吸(Re)的主要控制因子，时间尺度愈短，二者的相关性愈好。总的来说，在较短时间尺度上，高PPFD 与夏季低温将会促进C 的吸收，有利于C 累积。 玉米农田日最大净C 吸收速率(NEEmax, daily)以及吸收释放转换点(NEE=0)均受PPFD 控制。NEEmax, daily 出现时间与PPFDmax, daily 出现时间几乎完全一致，当PPFD 达到1 日内极大值时，净C 吸收也相应达到了日最大值。但NEEmax, daily的量值还受到其它因子的影响。当水分条件充足时，还将受到LAI、gs 等生物因子的控制。NEE 由正转为负的转换点也是由PPFD 决定。当PPFD 稳定大于PPFD*( PPFD*=100 μmol•m-2s -1)时，净C 吸收开始；当PPFD 稳定小于PPFD*时，净C 吸收由此结束。1 日内，PPFD 稳定通过PPFD*之间的时间间隔决定了日净C 吸收的时间长度。日净C 吸收的时间越长，吸收量也越大，且有明显的季节变化，7 月最长9 月最短。 按照热量水分状况将三年分组，分为I 组(水分状况相似，热量条件不同)与II 组(热量条件相似，水分状况不同)。 I 组年际间PPFD 波动是造成C 交换格局变化的关键原因。而II 组年际间C 交换格局不同是由降水量及其不同分布引起的土壤含水量(SWC)变化是造成。SWC 可以解释年际间NEE 变异的97%，而大气水汽压亏缺(VPD)可以解释30.7%；温度因子通过影响C 收支中的呼吸项，间接影响着生态系统的NEE，它可以解释年际间NEE 变异的73.9%，也是造成年际间C 交换格局不同的原因之一；另外，PPFD 和发育期早晚以及净C吸收期长度等也同样影响着C 交换格局的变化。综合两组情况来看，由水分条件年际变化引起的NEE 的波动大于能量年际变化引起的波动。总之，在较长时间尺度上，NEE 对SWC 变化比其对PPFD 变化更敏感，说明在半干旱地区土壤水分条件仍然是决定C 交换格局的主导因子。 NEE 与LE 呈线性相关，它们之间的相关性主要受温度和NEE 的控制，温度越高，二者的相关性越弱，而NEE 越大二者相关性越好。同时，作物蒸腾与土壤蒸发的比例也是影响NEE 与LE 之间关系的主要因素。蒸腾作用所占的比例越大，二者的线性关系越显著，而土壤蒸发比例越大，二者的相关性越弱。总的来说，NEE 与LE 之间的线性关系有明显的季节变化，生长季好于非生长季，夏天好于冬天。 总之，雨养玉米农田水热碳通量既具有其它农田生态系统共有的动态特征，也具有其特有特征。

Modeling of a coal-fired slagging combustor: Development of a slag submodel

In a slagging combustor or furnace, the high combustion temperature makes the molten slag layer cover the wall and capture the particles. If these particles contain combustible matter, they will continue to burn on the running slag. As a result, the total amount of ash deposition will be much greater than that in dry-wall combustors and the total heat flux through the deposition surface will change greatly. Considering the limitations of existing simulation methods for slagging combustion, this paper introduces a new wall burning model and slag flow model from the analysis; of particle deposition phenomena. Combined with a conventional combustion simulation program, the total computational frame is introduced. From comparisons of simulation results from several kinds of methods with experimental data, the conclusion is drawn that the conventional simulation methods are not very suitable for slagging combustion and the wall burning mechanism should be considered more thoroughly.

Estimation of Transverse Thermal Conductivity of Doubly-periodic Fiber Reinforced Composites

For steady-state heat conduction a new variational functional for a unit cell of composites with periodic microstructures is constructed by considering the quasi-periodicity of the temperature field and in the periodicity of the heat flux fields. Then by combining with the eigenfunction expansion of complex potential which satisfies the fiber-matrix interface conditions, an eigenfunction expansion-variational method (EEVM) based on a unit cell is developed. The effective transverse thermal conductivities of doubly-periodic fiber reinforced composites are calculated, and the first-order approximation formula for the square and hexagonal arrays is presented,which is convenient for engineering application. The numerical results show a good convergency of the presented method, even through the fiber volume fraction is relatively high. Comparisons with the existing analytical and experimental results are made to demonstrate the accuracy and validity of the first-order approximation formula for the hexagonal array.

Evaporation of Ethanol Drops on a Heated Substrate Under Microgravity Conditions

We present in this paper results obtained from a parabolic flight campaign regarding ethanol sessile drop evaporation under reduced gravity conditions. Drops are created using a syringe pump by means of injection through a PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) substrate. The drops are recorded using a video camera and an infrared camera to observe the thermal motion inside the drop and on the heating substrate. The experimental set-up presented in this paper enables the simultaneous visualization and access to the heat flux density that is transferred to the drop using a heat flux meter placed between the heating block and the PTFE substrate. We evidence original thermal spreading phenomena during the ethanol drop creation on a heated PTFE substrate. The drop exhibits specific behaviour which is discussed here. This work is performed in the frame of a French-Chinese collaboration (project IMPACHT) for future experiments in a Chinese scientific satellite.

Validating MODIS-derived land surface evapotranspiration with in situ measurements at two AmeriFlux sites in a semiarid region

Reducing uncertainties in the estimation of land surface evapotranspiration (ET) from remote-sensing data is essential to better understand earth-atmosphere interactions. This paper demonstrates the applicability of temperature-vegetation index triangle (T-s-VI) method in estimating regional ET and evaporative fraction (EF, defined as the ratio of latent heat flux to surface available energy) from MODIS/Terra and MODIS/Aqua products in a semiarid region. We have compared the satellite-based estimates of ET and EF with eddy covariance measurements made over 4 years at two semiarid grassland sites: Audubon Ranch (AR) and Kendall Grassland (KG). The lack of closure in the eddy covariance measured surface energy components is shown to be more serious at MODIS/Aqua overpass time than that at MODIS/Terra overpass time for both AR and KG sites. The T-s-VI-derived EF could reproduce in situ EF reasonably well with BIAS and root-mean-square difference (RMSD) of less than 0.07 and 0.13, respectively. Surface net radiation has been shown to be systematically overestimated by as large as about 60 W/m(2). Satisfactory validation results of the T-s-VI-derived sensible and latent heat fluxes have been obtained with RMSD within 54 W/m(2). The simplicity and yet easy use of the T-s-VI triangle method show a great potential in estimating regional ET with highly acceptable accuracy that is of critical significance in better understanding water and energy budgets on the Earth. Nevertheless, more validation work should be carried out over various climatic regions and under other different land use/land cover conditions in the future.

Neural network retrieval of ocean surface parameters from SSM/I data

A new algorithm based on the multiparameter neural network is proposed to retrieve wind speed (WS), sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface air temperature, and relative humidity ( RH) simultaneously over the global oceans from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) observations. The retrieved geophysical parameters are used to estimate the surface latent heat flux and sensible heat flux using a bulk method over the global oceans. The neural network is trained and validated with the matchups of SSM/I overpasses and National Data Buoy Center buoys under both clear and cloudy weather conditions. In addition, the data acquired by the 85.5-GHz channels of SSM/I are used as the input variables of the neural network to improve its performance. The root-mean-square (rms) errors between the estimated WS, SST, sea surface air temperature, and RH from SSM/I observations and the buoy measurements are 1.48 m s(-1), 1.54 degrees C, 1.47 degrees C, and 7.85, respectively. The rms errors between the estimated latent and sensible heat fluxes from SSM/I observations and the Xisha Island ( in the South China Sea) measurements are 3.21 and 30.54 W m(-2), whereas those between the SSM/ I estimates and the buoy data are 4.9 and 37.85 W m(-2), respectively. Both of these errors ( those for WS, SST, and sea surface air temperature, in particular) are smaller than those by previous retrieval algorithms of SSM/ I observations over the global oceans. Unlike previous methods, the present algorithm is capable of producing near-real-time estimates of surface latent and sensible heat fluxes for the global oceans from SSM/I data.

The Obduction of Equatorial 13 degrees C Water in the Pacific Identified by a Simulated Passive Tracer

The obduction of equatorial 13 degrees C Water in the Pacific is investigated using a simulated passive tracer of the Consortium for Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO). The result shows that the 13 degrees C Water initialized in the region 8 degrees N-8 degrees S, 130 degrees-90 degrees W enters the surface mixed layer in the eastern tropical Pacific, mainly through upwelling near the equator, in the Costa Rica Dome, and along the coast of Peru. Approximately two-thirds of this obduction occurs within 10 years after the 13 degrees C Water being initialized, with the upper portion of the water mass reaching the surface mixed layer in only about a month. The obduction of the 13 degrees C Water helps to maintain a cool sea surface temperature year-round, equivalent to a surface heat flux of about -6.0 W m(-2) averaged over the eastern tropical Pacific (15 degrees S-15 degrees N, 130 degrees W-eastern boundary) for the period of integration (1993-2006). During El Nino years, when the thermocline deepens as a consequence of the easterly wind weakening, the obduction of the 13 degrees C Water is suppressed, and the reduced vertical entrainment generates a warming anomaly of up to 10 W m(-2) in the eastern tropical Pacific and in particular along the coast of Peru, providing explanations for the warming of sea surface temperature that cannot be accounted for by local winds alone. The situation is reversed during La Nina years.

Subtropical dipole mode in the Southern Hemisphere: A global view

A global wavenumber-3 dipole SST mode is showed to exist in the Southern Hemisphere subtropical climate variability in austral summer. A positive (negative) phase of the mode is characterized by cool (warm) SST anomalies in the east and warm (cool) SST anomalies in the southwest of the south Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans, respectively. This coherent dipole structure is largely a response of ocean mixed layer to the atmospheric forcing characterized by migration and modulation of the subtropical high-pressures, in which the latent heat flux play a leading role through wind-induced evaporation, although ocean dynamics may also be crucial in forming SST anomalies attached to the continents. Exploratory analyses suggest that this mode is strongly damped by the negative heat flux feedback, with a persistence time about three months and no spectral peak at interannual to decadal time scales. As the subtropical dipole mode is linearly independent of ENSO and SAM, whether it represents an additional source of climate predictability should be further studied. Citation: Wang, F. (2010), Subtropical dipole mode in the Southern Hemisphere: A global view, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L10702, doi: 10.1029/2010GL042750.

Long-Wave Dynamics of Sea Level Variations during Indian Ocean Dipole Events

Long-wave dynamics of the interannual variations of the equatorial Indian Ocean circulation are studied using an ocean general circulation model forced by the assimilated surface winds and heat flux of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. The simulation has reproduced the sea level anomalies of the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon altimeter observations well. The equatorial Kelvin and Rossby waves decomposed from the model simulation show that western boundary reflections provide important negative feedbacks to the evolution of the upwelling currents off the Java coast during Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) events. Two downwelling Kelvin wave pulses are generated at the western boundary during IOD events: the first is reflected from the equatorial Rossby waves and the second from the off-equatorial Rossby waves in the southern Indian Ocean. The upwelling in the eastern basin during the 1997-98 IOD event is weakened by the first Kelvin wave pulse and terminated by the second. In comparison, the upwelling during the 1994 IOD event is terminated by the first Kelvin wave pulse because the southeasterly winds off the Java coast are weak at the end of 1994. The atmospheric intraseasonal forcing, which plays an important role in inducing Java upwelling during the early stage of an IOD event, is found to play a minor role in terminating the upwelling off the Java coast because the intraseasonal winds are either weak or absent during the IOD mature phase. The equatorial wave analyses suggest that the upwelling off the Java coast during IOD events is terminated primarily by western boundary reflections.

Ship-board measurements and estimations of air-sea fluxes in the western tropical Pacific during TOGA COARE

Direct air-sea flux measurements were made on RN Kexue #1 at 40 degrees S, 156 degrees E during the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Coupled Ocean-Atmospheric Response Experiment (COARE) Intensive Observation Period (IOP). An array of six accelerometers was used to measure the motion of the anchored ship, and a sonic anemometer and Lyman-alpha hygrometer were used to measure the turbulent wind vector and specific humidity. The contamination of the turbulent wind components by ship motion was largely removed by an improvement of a procedure due to Shao based on the acceleration signals. The scheme of the wind correction for ship motion is briefly outlined. Results are presented from data for the best wind direction relative to the ship to minimize flow distortion effects. Both the time series and the power spectra of the sonic-measured wind components show swell-induced ship motion contamination, which is largely removed by the accelerometer correction scheme, There was less contamination in the longitudinal wind component than in the vertical and transverse components. The spectral characteristics of the surface-layer turbulence properties are compared with those from previous land and ocean results, Momentum and latent heat fluxes were calculated by eddy correlation and compared to those estimated by the inertial dissipation method and the TOGA COARE bulk formula. The estimations of wind stress determined by eddy correlation are smaller than those from the TOGA COARE bulk formula, especially for higher wind speeds, while those from the bulk formula and inertial dissipation technique are generally in agreement. The estimations of latent heal flux from the three different methods are in reasonable agreement. The effect of the correction for ship motion on latent heat fluxes is not as large as on momentum fluxes.

Factors influencing the climatological mixed layer depth in the South China Sea: numerical simulations

The mixed layer depth (MLD) in the upper ocean is an important physical parameter for describing the upper ocean mixed layer. We analyzed several major factors influencing the climatological mixed layer depth (CMLD), and established a numerical simulation in the South China Sea (SCS) using the Regional Ocean Model System (ROMS) with a high-resolution (1/12A degrees x1/12A degrees) grid nesting method and 50 vertical layers. Several ideal numerical experiments were tested by modifying the existing sea surface boundary conditions. Especially, we analyzed the sensitivity of the results simulated for the CMLD with factors of sea surface wind stress (SSWS), sea surface net heat flux (SSNHF), and the difference between evaporation and precipitation (DEP). The result shows that of the three factors that change the depth of the CMLD, SSWS is in the first place, when ignoring the impact of SSWS, CMLD will change by 26% on average, and its effect is always to deepen the CMLD; the next comes SSNHF (13%) for deepening the CMLD in October to January and shallowing the CMLD in February to September; and the DEP comes in the third (only 2%). Moreover, we analyzed the temporal and spatial characteristics of CMLD and compared the simulation result with the ARGO observational data. The results indicate that ROMS is applicable for studying CMLD in the SCS area.

海气热通量与东亚夏季风的关系

本文采用基于风切变的季风指数确定了多年季风爆发的时间；使用实测资料计算分析了2008年南海季风爆发前后海气通量的特征；基于COARE3.0算法，用NCEP2中海气要素再分析资料计算了海气热通量场并与NCEP2中原始热通量场进行了比较；利用EOF方法得到季风爆发早晚年份海气热通量场的时空特征；利用SVD方法分析了热通量场及海温场与季风的关系，初步探讨了海气热通量的变化影响季风爆发的过程和机理。结果表明： 1、2008年南海夏季风爆发期间热带气旋对海气要素的影响较大。动量交换系数与热量交换系数是风速的函数，曲线在风速为4m/s时有一个转折的过程。 2、海温的变化超前于季风爆发时间和强度的变化；热通量的变化超前于海温的变化。热通量通过海温这一中间过程对季风产生作用。 3、季风爆发时间和强度的变化受前期2至3个月时黑潮区域热通量变化的影响。此海域的热通量较大的时候，其后的季风爆发偏早、偏强；反之，季风爆发偏晚、偏弱。

Surface energy partitioning in alpine swamp meadow in the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau

Based on surface energy flux data measured by eddy covariance methods from China Flux in alpine swamp meadow of the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau in 2005, the daily and seasonal dynamic of surface energy fluxes and their partitioning, as well as abiotic factors effects were analyzed. The results suggested that LE （Latent heat flux） was the largest consumer of the incoming energy. Rn （Net radiation flux） and LE showed clear seasonal variations in sharp hump and up to their maximums in August and July, respectively. H （Sensible heat flux） increased to its peak in August whereafter declined slowly. Precipitation could reduce the components of surface energy. As to Rn and LE, their correlations with abiotic factors were evident while it was not significant in H. Average EBR （Energy balance ratio） was 50.7 %, which was much larger in growing season than non-growing season.

CO2H2O and energy exchange of an Inner Mongolia steppe ecosystem during a dry and wet year

We used an eddy covariance technique to measure evapotranspiration and carbon flux over two very different growing seasons for a typical steppe on the Inner Mongolia Plateau, China. The rainfall during the 2004 growing season (344.7 mm) was close to the annual average (350.43 mm). In contrast, precipitation during the 2005 growing season was significantly lower than average (only 126 mm). The wet 2004 growing season had a higher peak evapotranspiration (4 mm day(-1)) than did the dry 2005 growing season (3.3 mm day(-1)). In 2004, latent heat flux was mainly a consumption resource for net radiation, accounting for similar to 46% of net radiation. However, sensible heat flux dominated the energy budget over the whole growing season in 2005, accounting for 60% of net radiation. The evaporative rate (LE/R-n) dropped by a factor of four from the non-soil stress to soil water limiting conditions. Maximum half-hourly CO2 uptake was -0.68 mg m(-2) s(-1) and maximum ecosystem exchange was 4.3 g CO2 m(-2) day(-1) in 2004. The 2005 drought growing stage had a maximum CO2 exchange value of only -0.22 mg m(-2) s(-1) and a continuous positive integrated-daily CO2 flux over the entire growing season, i.e. the ecosystem became a net carbon source. Soil respiration was temperature dependent when the soil was under non-limiting soil moisture conditions, but this response declined with soil water stress. Water availability and a high vapor pressure deficit severely limited carbon fixing of this ecosystem; thus, during the growing season, the capacity to fix CO2 was closely related to both timing and frequency of rainfall events. (c) 2007 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.

Seasonal and interannual variation in water vapor and energy exchange over a typical steppe in Inner Mongolia, China

In this study, we conducted eddy covariance (EC) measurements of water vapor exchange over a typical steppe in a semi-arid area of the Inner Mongolia Plateau, China. Measurement sites were located within a 25-year-old enclosure with a relatively low leaf area index (similar to 1. 5 m(2) m(-2)) and dominated by Leymus chinensis. Energy balance closure was (H + LE) = 17.09 + 0.69 x (Rn - G) (W/m(2); r(2) = 0.95, n = 6596). Precipitation during the two growing seasons of the study period was similar to the long-term average. The peak evapotranspiration in 2004 was 4 mm d(-1), and 3.5 mm d(-1) in 2003. The maximum latent heat flux was higher than the sensible heat flux, and the sensible heat flux dominated the energy budget at midday during the entire growing season in 2003; latent heat flux was the main consumption component for net radiation during the 2004 growing season. During periods of frozen soil in 2003 and 2004, the sensible heat flux was the primary consumption component for net radiation. The soil heat flux component was similar in 2003 and 2004. The decoupling coefficient (between 0.5 and 0.1) indicates that evapotranspiration was strongly controlled by saturation water vapor pressure deficit (VPD) in this grassland. The results of this research suggest that energy exchange and evapotranspiration were controlled by the phenology of the vegetation and soil water content. In addition, the amount and frequency of rainfall significantly affect energy exchange and evapotranspiration upon the Inner Mongolia plateau. (c) 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.