128 resultados para Degraded pasture


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本文结合野外调查、野外实验和模型模拟方法研究了内蒙古退化草原在继续放牧和啮齿类动物活动干扰下,植物多样性、种群空间格局、种间空间关联、小尺度鼠丘和小尺度空斑(Gap)上植被发展动态的生态响应。研究结果如下: (1)经过长期不同强度的放牧干扰后,无牧条件下植被盖度显著低于其它三个放牧(轻牧、中牧、重牧)条件下的植被盖度,而其它三个放牧条件之间的植被盖度差异不显著;无牧条件下羊草成为群落的优势种,轻牧和中牧条件下冷蒿依然是群落的优势种,这三种条件下寸草苔的种群盖度最大;重牧条件下优势种变为星毛委陵菜,并且其种群盖度最大;不同放牧退化阶段指示植物的种群盖度随放牧强度增大的变化趋势是:冷蒿为先增大后减小,而星毛委陵菜为先急剧增大,然后平缓增大,最后再急剧增大;植物多样性和均匀度指数在中牧条件下最大,在无牧条件下最小,说明中牧条件下群落的多样性最高,无牧条件下群落的多样性最小,而优势度指数的变化趋势和它们正相反。 (2)放牧对星毛委陵菜(或糙隐子草)种群空间格局有显著影响,即使在同一放牧强度下其种群在不同尺度上的空间格局存在显著差异。在小尺度上,植物种群主要呈现为集聚分布;同一放牧强度下随着尺度的增大,集聚分布趋向于随机和均匀分布;随着放牧强度的增大,物种的集聚分布消失的空间尺度缩短。 (3)不同放牧强度下,冷蒿和星毛委陵菜之间的空间关联存在显著的差异。在无牧和轻牧条件下,冷蒿和星毛委陵菜在小尺度(0-100cm)上主要呈负关联的空间关系,而在中牧和重牧条件下除了呈负关联的空间关系外,两个物种在空间上还是相互独立的。同时,放牧强度的增大缩小了负关联程度的峰值(最小值)。放牧强度越大,两物种之间的空间关系由负关联转变为相互独立的空间尺度越小(距离越短)。 (4)草原黄鼠鼠丘干扰显著降低了植物物种的丰富度(24种),同样,减少了不同功能组内的物种数,特别是多年生非禾本科草类减少的物种数最多;和周围的未受鼠丘干扰的植被比较,鼠丘上植物多样性减少了1.42,优势度减少了4.21,而均匀度增加了0.06;鼠丘上,多年生植物出现频率(0.37)大约是一年生植物出现频率(0.13)的四倍。具有高抗埋藏性的物种(寸草苔)和抗埋藏性的物种(冷蒿、冰草和糙隐子草)具有相对较高的出现频率。对于功能组来说,多年生非禾本科草类(PF, EF=0.51)具有最大的出现频率,接下来依次是多年生根茎禾草(PR, EF=0.46)、灌木和半灌木(SS, EF=0.32)、多年生丛生禾草(PB, EF=0.25)、一年生和两年生植物(AB, EF=0.13);鼠丘上,寸草苔的密度最大(244.43 个体/米2)。多年生非禾本科草类的密度(130.74个体/米2)远大于其他功能组的密度(PR,34.76个体/米2;PB,16.52个体/米2;AB,14.31个体/米2;SS,12.39个体/米2);鼠丘上植被地上生物量(35.90克/米2)远远小于外围对照植被地上生物量(211.54克/米2)。冷蒿的地上生物量最大,其次是寸草苔。对于功能组,SS最大 (8.44克/米2) ,其次是PF (7.17克/米2),这两个功能组的地上生物量远大于其他三个功能组的地上生物量(PR, PB和 AB分别是 3.23克/米2、1.40克/米2和2.49克/米2)。 (5)干扰产生空斑的拓殖受空斑大小和放牧历史的影响,植物拓殖空斑的方式随空斑形成后的时间而变化。空斑直径越大,其被拓殖的机会越大;具有高强度放牧历史群落中的空斑更易被植物拓殖;第一年对空斑的拓殖主要通过种子萌发;第二年,种子萌发方式(特别是一年生植物)拓殖空斑的比例有所降低,而通过地下根茎的克隆繁殖拓殖空斑的比例有所增加。

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氮素是大多数陆地生态系统初级生产力的主要限制因子。由于人类的工业和农业生产活动不断加剧,导致全球性氮沉降增加,使大多数生态系统氮素的可获得性增强。从而降低或消除了氮素对生态系统的限制作用,加速了生态系统生物地球化学过程,对物种多样性和生态系统结构与功能产生了显著的影响。但由于成土母质、气候条件、地形地貌、植被组成等的差异,不同生态系统类型对氮素增加的响应也不尽相同。欧洲和北美一些发达国家地区对于草地生态系统对于全球性氮沉降增加响应进行了较全面的研究,对于分布广泛的欧亚大陆草原研究相对不足。 本文研究选择对于欧亚大陆草原较具代表性的成熟羊草草原群落及该群落的退化类型为研究对象,从1999年开始,在这两类群落中选取地形相对平缓均一,植被组成一致的地段设置了施肥小区并进行持续氮素添加实验。本文研究了成熟和退化羊草草原群落物种功能特性与土壤微生物量C、N、P对氮素添加响应。 羊草群落中6种主要植物的地上生物量、种群密度、比叶面积、叶氮和叶绿素含量对于氮素添加响应以及各指标之间相关关系的分析表明:比叶面积、基于质量的叶片含氮量和叶绿素含量、叶绿素a和叶绿素b的比值等叶片水平上物种功能特性间的相互作用,共同影响和决定了种群密度和地上生物量对氮素添加的响应。羊草通过提高比叶面积、叶片叶绿素含量和含氮量、种群密度及个体生物量等多重调节功能对氮素添加做出响应。西伯利亚羽茅主要通过提高比叶面积、单位质量叶片的叶绿素含量和含氮量,以及株丛生物量,使其在群落占据优势。大针茅和冰草在提高比叶面积、叶片叶绿素含量和含氮量的调节能力相对较低,种群密度沿氮素添加梯度显著降低。黄囊苔草只能通过提高叶片叶绿素含量和含氮量对氮素添加做出响应,其叶绿素a与叶绿素b的比值沿氮素添加梯度逐渐降低,种群密度和地上生物量也显著降低。糙隐子草的叶绿素a与叶绿素b比值沿氮素添加梯度显著降低,但由于糙隐子草具有较高的SLA,且对叶绿素、叶片含氮量的调节能力较强,氮素添加处理没有对其种群密度和地上生物量产生显著的影响。上述结果支持Tilman的光资源竞争假说和Knops等的物种替代假说。 成熟和退化羊草群落土壤微生物量、土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷、速效氮、pH以及凋落物碳、氮、磷含量的测定结果表明:(1)成熟羊草群落表层土壤微生物量碳、氮、磷含量均随氮素添加量的增加而降低;退化羊草群落表层土壤微生物量碳、氮、磷含量沿氮素梯度表现出先增加而后降低的趋势;相关分析的结果显示各群落土壤微生物量碳、氮、磷均与土壤pH呈显著的正相关。(2)微生物量碳、氮、磷含量均随土层深度的增加而下将;而对照的微生物量碳、氮、磷含量则与土壤有机质含量呈显著正相关。(3)年度间降水量差异对土壤微生物量碳、氮、磷具有较大影响。综合上述研究结果,我们认为成熟羊草群落土壤微生物生长不受氮素限制,但退化群落不同;氮素添加导致的土壤酸化作用可能是两类群落表层土壤微生物量下降的主要因素,且这种影响主要集中在0-10cm的表层土壤;表层土壤微生物量碳、氮、磷对氮素添加的响应可能还受到其它因子(如生长季降水量)的影响;深层土壤微生物量较低主要是由于土壤有机质含量较低的缘故。

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涡度相关技术是唯一能直接测定大气与植被间CO2通量的标准方法。随着全球变化研究的深入,人类活动干扰下陆地生态系统碳通量研究越来越受到关注,对草地生态系统的研究更是备受关注。本研究选择位于内蒙古典型的农牧交错区——多伦县的典型克氏针茅草地和被开垦的农田为研究对象,利用涡度相关技术,结合各环境因子,在不同时间尺度上探讨了控制内蒙古草地生态系统碳通量可能的生理机制。利用一年多净生态系统CO2气体交换(NEE)通量的观测,量化了这个地区草地生态系统的碳储备量,并进一步阐明了开垦对该区域生态系统物质能量流动的影响。我们还利用Keeling同位素曲线与微气象技术相结合的方法把生态系统夜间呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸;同时利用同化箱式法,把草地生态系统白天群落呼吸进行了区分,进一步了解了不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献。 结果表明,控制该地区生态系统碳通量主要的环境因子是土壤含水量(VWC)和温度。两个生态系统的植被叶面积指数(LAI)和生物量在非干旱季都要高于干旱季,因而两个生态系统在非干旱季不同环境因子的不同梯度下的NEEmax都比干旱季的要高。两个生态系统NEE的最大日变幅和日最大值在非旱季与旱季十分接近,说明即使土壤水分有所改善,但由于这个地区贫瘠的土壤限制了生态系统的净碳交换量而使这两个生态系统的固碳能力依旧不高。无论是旱季还是非旱季,草地生态系统呼吸的温度敏感系数Q10都随土壤含水量的增加而增加,这除了水分的促进作用外,另外就是生长旺季根生物量的增加。而在两个生长季里农田生态系统的Q10都随土壤含水量的变化不是很规则,这主要是因为农作改变了植被类型和土壤的物理结构从而引起生态系统微环境、微生物活性以及根生物量的改变,结果影响生态系统呼吸对温度的敏感性。 在连续两个生长季里,两个生态系统碳通量随季节的变化都有明显的日变化,7月份的日变化最大,而且农田生态系统的NEE日变幅大于草地生态系统NEE的日变幅。两个生态系统每个月NEE的日最大值都出现在上午8~9点左右,而生态系统的呼吸(RE)的日最大值都发生在下午14~16点左右。冬季两个生态系统各组分碳通量的日进程几乎都没有差异,系统基本处于碳平衡状态。进入春季,幼小的植被限制了生态系统的碳同化。期间的耕作促进了土壤CO2的大量释放,同时较频繁的降雨不仅影响植被吸收光以进行光合固定碳,同时也进一步加大了农田CO2的释放,结果农田生态系统释放的CO2比草地生态系统多。夏季,两个生态系统都是吸收碳的库,农田生态系统因较高的LAI和较低的生态系统呼吸温度敏感性使其NEP远高于草地生态系统的NEP,是一个较强的碳库。秋末,草地生态系统几乎处于碳平衡的状态。农作物的收割,使得大量含不溶性物质较低枯叶和秸秆残留在地里,农田生态系统呼吸释放的碳量显著高于同期草地释放的碳量。通过2005~2006年对两个生态系统碳通量进行一整年的观测,发现两个生态系统年净固碳量相当,草地净固定71.3 g C m-2,农田净固定64.4 g C m-2。但秋季的收获使农田生态系统近70%的生物量被收走,降低了该系统的固碳能力。 为进一步了解不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献量,我们利用浓度梯度-同位素法与微气象技术相结合的方法,初步将生态系统呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸。草地生态系统在生长旺季自养呼吸占总呼吸80%以上,而农田生态系统在生长季阶段异养呼吸所占整个生态呼吸的比例从60%上升至作物成熟时的80%以上。降雨不仅显著增加草地生态系统呼吸的释放量,而且主要是显著增加了异养呼吸的释放量。此外,我们还利用同化箱式法对草地生态系统的群落呼吸进行区分,结果显示群落总呼吸(Re)有明显的季节变化,最高值在生长季中期。凋落物分解、土壤有机质呼吸、根呼吸和地上植被呼吸在整个生长季平均分别占总生态系统呼吸的19.4%、37.8%、9.8%和32.9%。构建各组分呼吸通量与温度的指数关系,结果显示根呼吸的温度敏感系数最大,土壤有机质的温度敏感性最低。降雨后首先促进了异养呼吸,随后植物的呼吸也开始变大,群落呼吸释放的最高峰出现在雨后第二天。 本研究初步分析了控制内蒙古农牧交错区草地生态系统碳通量的主要因子,量化了该区域草地生态系统的碳储备量,并进一步阐述了开垦对该区域生态系统碳通量的影响。同时尝试不同方法对生态系统碳通量进行了区分,得出了一些具有生态学意义的结果,为进一步探讨控制生态系统碳通量的生理机制提供了可能。

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近几十年来,由于过度放牧和不合理的农业开垦,内蒙古的天然草原退化严重。自2000年起,中国政府制定了“退耕还林还草”政策,并在草原地区实行了“禁牧、轮牧、休牧”等草原管理措施,期望依靠自然力来恢复退化的草原。然而,这些政策究竟能够带来什么样的后果还是一个未知数。土壤种子库和种子雨的资料对于全面理解植物种群和群落的动态具有重要价值。退化生态系统的恢复评价应该包括土壤种子库和种子雨的资料。因此,我调查了不同利用方式下克氏针茅(Stipa krylovii)草原的土壤种子库、种子雨和地上植被组成,来探讨政府的恢复政策对于该地区草原生态系统的影响。 研究地点位于中国科学院多伦恢复生态学试验示范研究站的永久实验样地,该实验样地在内蒙古自治区锡林郭勒盟的多伦县境内,该地区属于典型的农牧交错区。 采用幼苗萌发法,本研究测定了三种具有不同土地利用历史的样地的土壤种子库密度和物种组成。它们分别是:放牧样地、围封样地和弃耕样地。主要的研究结果有: (1)弃耕样地的土壤种子库密度最大,且主要是一年生和杂草类植物的种子,弃耕地由于其开垦的历史导致种子库的物种组成与放牧样地和围封样地的种子库有明显区别,其种子库缺少合适的多年生植物的种子是限制弃耕地自然恢复为天然草原的重要因素。 (2)放牧虽然会降低土壤种子库的密度,但是其中并不缺少多年生植物的种子。恢复由过度放牧引起的退化草原比恢复由农业开垦导致的退化草原要容易一些。围封对于由过度放牧引起的草原退化有明显的积极作用。 (3)采用Sorensen指数来计算地上植被与土壤种子库的相似性,这三个样地土壤种子库与地上植被的物种相似性均较高。在地上植被生物多样性的调查中,不能将草原中的一些早春植物遗漏。 采用网筛分离法,本研究测定了四种具有不同土地利用历史的样地的种子雨密度和物种组成。它们分别是:放牧样地、围封样地、割草样地和弃耕样地。主要的研究结果有: (1)不同样地间种子雨的密度差异显著(p < 0.05)。围封样地的种子雨密度最大,弃耕样地和放牧样地的种子雨密度居中,割草样地的种子雨密度最小。 (2)弃耕样地的地上植被和种子雨中均存在大量的一年生植物,这可能需要放牧或者割草等其它的一些管理措施来去除一年生植物的优势,从而加快弃耕地向天然草原的恢复速度。 (3)围封样地和割草样地的种子雨和地上植被中的物种数目均比放牧样地的要少,且围封样地中多年生非禾草类植物的比例大大增加,说明禁牧会改变草原植被的物种组成,这些究竟给草原植被的恢复带来怎样的影响,需要进一步的研究。 (4)克氏针茅草原整个取样期间种子雨的降落是连续的,因此在一些长期土壤种子库的研究中应该结合种子雨的数据,不能简单的将7月份的土壤样品作为长期土壤种子库。 采用网筛分离法,本研究测定了不同留茬高度的刈割实验样地的土壤种子库密度和物种组成。主要研究结果有: (1)无割草处理的对照样地的土壤种子库密度与其它割草处理样地的土壤种子库密度之间差异不显著。可能的原因是刈割的实验小区过小,植物种子的散布能够从不割草样地传播到割草处理的样地,或者动物的采食以及搬运降低了对照样地中种子的数量。 (2)虽然多年生禾草类植物在地上植被中占优势地位,但其在土壤种子库中的密度很小,均不到土壤种子库总量的10%。可见无性繁殖对于保持多年生禾草类植物在植被中的优势地位具有重要的意义,而相反的是非禾草类植物在土壤中保存大量的种子作为种群扩大的重要手段。

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植物种间作用是决定物种分布、种群动态、群落演变和生态系统功能的重要因子。长期以来,相关研究集中在竞争作用上。然而自1990年代以来,易化作用逐渐受到重视,被认为是植物群落中物种共存的主要推动力,尤其是在极端和受到干扰的环境中。很多研究都揭示出植物对其他特定的物种产生直接或间接的正向的作用。护卫植物主要通过两种机制对临近的物种产生正向作用,即对恶劣的自然环境的改善和对高强度干扰的阻止和减轻。灌木在很多条件下能够成为护卫植物,影响种群的分布、群落的多样性和生态系统的功能。 中国西南部的青藏高原的牧场上,非生物的环境胁迫(比如生长季短暂、辐射强度大和极端温度等)和生物的干扰作用(比如过度放牧等)都很强。有文献表明,随着过度放牧现象的加重和草地的不断退化,灌木的分布有逐渐扩大的趋势。针对灌木对过度放牧草地上小尺度植被格局的影响,我们在若尔盖地区展开了以下两方面的研究。 为了研究不同种类灌木的影响,我们在若尔盖高原上选择了既具有恶劣的自然环境又遭受过度放牧压力的草地,对三种灌木内外的相同大小面积上小尺度范围内的植被进行调查。三种灌木分别是高山绣线菊、窄叶鲜卑花和金露梅,它们在形态结构、高度和可食性上都存在差异。在不考虑灌木种类的基础上,我们发现物种丰度、总盖度、开花的物种数和花序数都是灌木内部高于外部,而均匀度则恰好相反,是外部要高于内部,香农多样性指数内外没有明显的差异。金露梅灌丛中内外物种丰度和均匀度的差异要明显高于窄叶鲜卑花,但是总盖度、开花的物种数和花序数的差异不随着灌木种类的不同而有明显的差异。大多数的物种(占总物种数的47-85%)并没有因为灌木的存在而在内外出现的频数上表现出差异,而相当一部分物种(占总物种数的13-39%)在灌木外部的频率要高,仅仅有很少的物种(占总物种数的3-13%)因为灌木的存在而受益,内部的频数要高于外部。这种对某些物种的保护作用没有表现在群落水平上,即提高群落的物种丰富度和多样性,因为同时发生的灌木和其他植物的竞争作用也会限制以致排除冠层下面某些物种的存在。灌木的可食性和形态结构(比如盖度、高度、冠层的紧实度等)能对它们跟其他植物的相互之间净作用的类型和强度产生影响。不同的灌木能保护不同种类、不同数量的植物,表明易化作用是物种特异性的,跟护卫植物有关,也跟受益者有关。通过植被的排序,金露梅和高山绣线菊内外的植被得到了很明显的分离,而窄叶鲜卑花的则没有。总体上来说,灌木的存在确实能够通过提高出现或开花的频率,保护了某些对放牧比较敏感的物种,而且这种易化作用是物种特异性的。内外植被的差异在放牧压力最大的金露梅灌丛中最大,表明过度放牧导致的大尺度的植被状况对于小尺度上灌丛内外的植被的差异所起的作用比灌木种类的作用更大。 为了研究同种灌木不同的分布类型对植被格局的影响,选择金露梅作为目标灌木。金露梅是当地常见灌木,有的植株孤立存在,有的则是很多株联合形成比较大的斑块。我们选择金露梅形成的斑块中央、外沿金露梅植株内部、外围和孤立的金露梅植株内部、外部五个位置,并在小尺度上进行了植被调查和比较,发现金露梅的存在确实保护了一些物种,但是种类有限,反而是大部分的物种在外部的频数要高与内部;从群落水平来看,金露梅冠层下的植被从丰富度、多样性上来讲并没有超过外部,仅仅是具有更高的均匀度和同质性;生殖方面的结果也是类似的,而且大部分物种跟其分布呈现出基本类似的格局。金露梅斑块的存在和自然围栏的产生没有起到很明显的保护作用,并没有使得斑块中央植被的丰富度、多样性、均匀度提高,而仅仅是提高了植物的长势(表现为具有较高的总盖度等);在物种水平,没有发现什么特异种的存在,仅仅发现能够促进一些物种在内部的生长或开花,而且比例很低。在这种效应的影响下,斑块边缘的金露梅相对于孤立的金露梅而言,也没有表现出更好的保护植被的能力。几乎所有的群落水平的指标都仅仅是受到灌木内外这个因素的影响,而两种分布格局(即:在斑块边缘和孤立存在)的影响是微乎其微的。植被排序的结果也充分证明了这一点,灌木内外的植被被明显的分离开来,而不同灌木中相应位置的植被则是混杂在一起。并且在物种水平上,除了极个别的物种之外,绝大部分物种内外的差异是是一致的,没有受到灌木分布格局的影响。即使个别物种具有不同的格局,也没有证据表明是受到了斑块中央植被的影响而产生的。

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Rong Gao, Yun Zhang, Qing-Xiong Meng, Wen-Hui Lee, Dong-Sheng Li, Yu-liang Xiong and Wan-Yu Wang. Characterization of three fibrinogenolytic enzymes from Chinese green tree viper (Trimeresurus stejneger ) venom. Toxicon 36, 457-467, 1998.-From the venom of Chinese green tree viper (Trimeresurus stejnegeri), three distinct fibrinogenolytic enzymes: stejnefibrase-l, stejnefibrase-2 and stejnefibrase-3, were purified by gel filtration, ion-exchange chromatography and reverse-phase high-performance chromatograghy (HPLC). SDS-PAGE analysis of those three enzymes showed that they consisted of a single polypeptide chain with mel. wt of -50 000, 31 000 and 32 000, respectively. Like TSV-PA (a specific plasminogen activator) and stejnobin (a fibrinogen-clotting enzyme) purified from the same venom, stejnfibrase-1, -2 and -3 were able to hydrolyze several chromogenic substrate. On the other hand, different from TSV-PA. and stejnobin, stejnefibrase-l, -2 and -3 did not activate plasminogen and did not possess fibrinogen-clotting activity. The three purified enzymes directly degraded fibrinogen to small fragments and rendered it unclottable by thrombin. Stejnefibrase-2 degraded preferentially BE-chain while stejnefibrase-l and -3 cleaved concomitantly Ax and B beta-chains of fibrinogen. None of these proteases degraded the gamma-chain of fibrinogen. When correlated with the loss of clottability of fibrinogen, the most active enzyme was stejnefibrase-l. The activities of the three enzymes were inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) and p-nitrophenyl-p-guanidinobenzoate (NPGB), indicating that like TSV-PA and stejnobin, they are venom serine proteases. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

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TSV-DM, a basic metalloproteinase with a molecular weight of 110 kDa, was purified from Trimeresurus stejnegeri venom. TSV-DM degraded the A alpha chain of fibrinogen more rapidly than the B beta chain in a dose dependent manner. The cDNA of TSV-DM encode

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A 50 kDa fibrinogenolytic protease, ohagin, from the venom of Ophiophagus hannah was isolated by a combination of gel filtration, ion-exchange and heparin affinity chromatography. Ohagin specifically degraded the alpha-chain of human fibrinogen and the pr

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Jerdonobin and jerdofibrase are two serine proteases purified from the venom of Trimeresurus jerdonii. The Michaelis constant K-m and the catalytic rate constant K-cat of jerdonobin or jerdofibrase on three chromogenic substrates, H-D-Pro-Phe-Arg-pNA (S2302), H-D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-pNA (S2238), and H-D-Val-Leu-Lys-pNA (S2251) were obtained from lineweaver-Burk plots. Jerdofibrase could hydrolyze all three substrates, but jerdonobin had no detectable activity on S2251, suggesting a relatively broader substrate specificity for jerdofibrase than jerdonobin. By SDS-PAGE, jerdofibrase preferentially degraded Bbeta-chain of fibrinogen. It also degraded Aalpha-chain of fibrinogen with relatively slow activity, but did not act on the gamma-chain. In contrast, jerdonobin did not degrade fibrinogen within 12 h. Fibrinopeptides liberation test, identified by HPLC, showed jerdonobin released fibrinopeptide A and a small amount of fibrinopeptide B. Unlike jerdonobin, jerdofibrase mainly released fibrinopeptide B. These results indicate that the two enzymes differ in their ability to hydrolyze chromogenic substrates and in their actions on fibrinogen. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

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The Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) is one of the most endangered primates in the world, confined to mature natural forest in Hainan Island, China. We assessed changes in habitat condition on the island between 1991 and 2008, using vegetation maps generated by remote-sensing images. We defined forest suitable for gibbons based on composition, tree size and canopy cover. During the 17-year period, the area of suitable gibbon forest decreased by 540 km(2) (35%) across the whole island, and by 6.3 km(2) (7%) in the locality of the sole remaining gibbon population at Bawangling National Nature Reserve. The forest patches large enough (>1 km(2)) to support a gibbon group decreased from 754 km(2) to 316 km(2) in total area, and from 92 to 64 in number. Suitable natural forest was mainly replaced by plantations below 760 m, or degraded by logging, grazing and planting of pines above 760 m. Meanwhile, forests in former confirmed gibbon areas became more fragmented: mean area of patches decreased by 53%. We mapped the patches of natural forest in good condition which could potentially support gibbons. We recommend a freeze on further expansion of plantations between core patches at Bawangling, Jiaxi-Houmiling and Yinggeling Nature Reserves in accordance with forest protection regulations; establishment of nature reserves in currently unprotected natural forest patches elsewhere in line with the local government's nature reserve expansion policy; and active natural-forest restoration between remaining fragments at Bawangling. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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A hemorrhagic proteinase, jerdohagin, was purified from Trimeresurus jerdonii venom by gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatographies. It was a single chain polypeptide with an apparent molecular weight of 96 kDa as estimated by SDS-PAGE under the non-reducing and reducing conditions. Internal peptide sequencing indicated that it consisted of metalloproteinase, disintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domains and belonged to the class III snake venom metalloproteinases (class P-III SVMPs). Like other typical metalloproteinases, hemorrhagic activities of jerdohagin were completely inhibited by EDTA, but not by PMSF. Jerdohagin preferentially degraded a-chain of human fibrinogen. Interestingly, jerdohagin did not activate human prothrombin, whereas it cleaved human prothrombin and fragment F1 of activated human prothrombin. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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With modified DNA extraction and Purification protocols, the complete cytochrome b gene sequences (1140 bp) were determined from degraded museum specimens. Molecular analysis and morphological examination of cranial characteristics of the giant flying squirrels of Petaurista philippensis complex (P. grandis, P. hainana, and P. yunanensis) and other Petaurista species yielded new insights into long-standing controversies in the Petaurista systematics. Patterns of genetic variations and morphological differences observed in this study indicate that P. hainana, P. albiventer, and P. yunanensis can be recognized as distinct species, and P. grandis and P. petaurista are conspecific populations. Phylogenetic relationships reconstructed by using parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian methods reveal that, with P. leucogenys as the basal branch, all Petaurista groups formed two distinct clades. Petaurista philippensis, P. hainana, P. yunanensis, and P. albiventer are clustered in the same clade, while P. grandis shows a close relationship to P. petaurista. Deduced divergence times based on Bayesian analysis and the transversional substitution at the third codon suggest that the retreating of glaciers and upheavals or movements of tectonic plates in the Pliocene-Pleistocene were the major factors responsible for the present geographical distributions of Petaurista groups. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Rhodopsin, encoded by the gene Rhodopsin (RH1), is extremely sensitive to light, and is responsible for dim-light vision. Bats are nocturnal mammals that inhabit poor light environments. Megabats (Old-World fruit bats) generally have well-developed eyes, while microbats (insectivorous bats) have developed echolocation and in general their eyes were degraded, however, dramatic differences in the eyes, and their reliance on vision, exist in this group. In this study, we examined the rod opsin gene (RH1), and compared its evolution to that of two cone opsin genes (SWS1 and M/LWS). While phylogenetic reconstruction with the cone opsin genes SWS1 and M/LWS generated a species tree in accord with expectations, the RH1 gene tree united Pteropodidae (Old-World fruit bats) and Yangochiroptera, with very high bootstrap values, suggesting the possibility of convergent evolution. The hypothesis of convergent evolution was further supported when nonsynonymous sites or amino acid sequences were used to construct phylogenies. Reconstructed RH1 sequences at internal nodes of the bat species phylogeny showed that: (1) Old-World fruit bats share an amino acid change (S270G) with the tomb bat; (2) Miniopterus share two amino acid changes (V104I, M183L) with Rhinolophoidea; (3) the amino acid replacement I123V occurred independently on four branches, and the replacements L99M, L266V and I286V occurred each on two branches. The multiple parallel amino acid replacements that occurred in the evolution of bat RH1 suggest the possibility of multiple convergences of their ecological specialization (i.e., various photic environments) during adaptation for the nocturnal lifestyle, and suggest that further attention is needed on the study of the ecology and behavior of bats.

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In this paper, we present the results of purification and characterization of an arginine/lysine amidase from the venom of Ophiophagus hannah (OhS1). It was purified by Sephadex G-75 gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B. It is a protein of about 43,000, consisting of a single polypeptide chain. It is a minor component in the venom. The purified enzyme was capable of hydrolysing several tripeptidyl-p-nitroanilide substrates having either arginine or lysine as the C-terminal residue. We studied the kinetic parameters of OhS1 on six these chromogenic substrates. OhS1 did not clot fibrinogen. Electrophoresis of fibrinogen degraded with OhS1 revealed the disappearance of the alpha- and beta-chains and the appearance of lower mel. wt fragments. OhS1 had no hemorrhagic activity. It did not hydrolyse casein, nor did it act on blood coagulation factor X, prothrombin and plasminogen. The activity of OhS1 was completely inhibited by NPGB, PMSF, DFP, benzamidine and soybean trypsin inhibitor, suggesting it is a serine protease. Metal chelator (EDTA) had no effect on it.

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Jerdonitin is a P-II class snake venom metalloproteinase comprising metalloproteinase and disintegrin domains. In this study, we established a high-level expression system in Pichia pastoris and developed a purification strategy for the recombinant Jerdonitin. This recombinant Jerdonitin degraded fibrinogen at a level of activity comparable with its wild type. The effects of recombinant Jerdonitin on inhibiting ADP-induced human platelet aggregation were in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 of 248 nM. In addition, we reported here that Jerdonitin can significantly inhibit the growth of several cell lines, including human liver cancer cells (Bel7402), human leukemia cells (K562) and human gastric carcinoma cells (BGC823). This study offers recombinant Jerdonitin that will be valuable for further functional and structural studies of Jerdonitin. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.