Ignition of single coal particle in a hot furnace under normal- and micro-gravity condition

An experimental study on ignition and combustion of single particles was conducted at normal gravity (1-g) and microgravity (l-g) for three high volatile coals with initial diameter of 1.5 and 2.0 mm, respectively. The non-intrusive twin-color pyrometry method was used to retrieve the surface temperature of the coal particle through processing the images taken by a color CCD camera. At the same time, a mathematical model considering thermal conduction inside the coal particle was developed to simulate the ignition process. Both experiments and modeling found that ignition occurred homogeneously at the beginning and then heterogeneously for the testing coal particles burning at l-g. Experimental results confirmed that ignition temperature decreased with increasing volatile content and increasing particle size. However, contradicted to previous studies, this study found that for a given coal with certain particle size, ignition temperature was about 50–80 K lower at l-g than that at 1-g. The model predictions agreed well with the l-g experimental data on ignition temperature. The criterion that the temperature gradient in the space away from the particle surface equaled to zero was validated to determine the commence of homogeneous ignition. Thermal conduction inside the particle could have a noticeable effect for determining the ignition temperature. With the consideration of thermal conduction, the critical size for the phase transient from homogeneous to heterogeneous is about 700 lm at ambient temperature 1500 K and oxygen concentration 0.23. 2009 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

四川九顶山西坡及龙肘山维管植物区系和植物多样性研究

横断山地区是一个十分自然的植物区系地区，在中国植物区系分区中是作为泛北极植物区中国-喜马拉雅亚区中的一个地区，其种子植物区系具有丰富的科、属、种，地理成分复杂，特有现象和替代现象明显。该地区作为植物区系和生物多样性的研究热点地区，长期以来极受中外植物学家关注。横断山脉东缘是中国-喜马拉雅和中国-日本植物区系的交汇过渡区域，北部的岷江流域以及南部的金沙江流域，孕育了该区丰富的物种资源和植被资源。而岷江干热河谷和金沙江干热河谷的相似性和相关性，更为该区的植物区系和生物多样性南北的对比研究提供了有利的条件。 本研究选择的九顶山西坡和龙肘山分别位于横断山区北部和南部，九顶山属岷江流域而龙肘山属金沙江流域。本研究结合植物区系研究和生物多样性研究，对该区的植物资源进行调查。通过样带调查和样线踏查结合，大量详实的野外样方调查和标本采集，进行传统的区系研究和生物多样性研究。研究该区物种多样性的海拔梯度格局及其潜在的影响影子，并利用新的区系评估质量方法对九顶山西坡的植物区系质量进行定量的研究，以期能更为深刻的理解该区的植物资源，为该区的资源保护和利用提供合理可行的建议。主要研究结论如下： 1）九顶山西坡植物区系的性质和特点 经鉴定和统计，九顶山西坡共有1707 种维管植物，分属617 属和140 科,其中种子植物1616 种，分属572 属117 科。就科的分布区成分构成而言，该区系的热带成分与温带成分相当，热带成分略占优势，表明九顶山西坡的植物区系与热带植物区系有较强的联系。但是，在九顶山西坡属的分布区类型所占的比例上，温带成分远远超过了热带成分，本区的种子植物分布表现出明显的温带性质。且温带分布类型的许多物种组成了九顶山西坡植被的建群种和优势种，是本区系最重要的成分，充分体现了本区系的温带性质。 2）九顶山西坡不同植被带的生物多样性海拔梯度格局 基于对土门-断头崖、茶山-九顶山、雁门沟-光光山三条垂直植被样带的调查，我们发现九顶山西坡的生物多样性沿海拔梯度的变化呈现出一定的规律性，不同样带之间有一定差异。就三条样带的物种组成相似性来看，虽然土门－断头崖样带属于涪江水系，而茶山－九顶山样带和雁门沟－光光山样带属于岷江水系，但不同水系对该区物种组成的影响并不明显。三条样带中，草本层物种丰富度均远远大于灌木层和乔木层，而以乔木层物种丰富度最低；α－多样性指数随着海拔梯度的变化在土门-断头崖样带中呈现单一下降趋势，在茶山-九顶山样带表现为双峰模型，而在雁门沟-光光山样带则表现为不显著波动变化；均匀度指数在土门-断头崖样带呈现出单一下降的趋势，在雁门沟-光光山样带表现为凹形曲线，而在茶山-九顶山样带却无明显的变化规律。β－多样性指数在土门-断头崖样带和茶山-九顶山样带呈现出明显的波动状态，植被类型替代现象明显；而在雁门沟-光光山样带却并未有十分显著的转折点，因其水平植被带受到干扰，同海拔替代现象不显著。 3）九顶山西坡维管植物丰富度的海拔梯度格局 我们考察了九顶山西坡和两条垂直样带（土门－断头崖和雁门沟－光光山样带）的不同分类等级（包括科、属、种）和不同生活型物种（乔木、灌木、禾草、蕨类和其它草本）的丰富度沿着海拔梯度的分布。结果发现，物种的丰富度海拔梯度格局具有不同的模式，单一下降和中间膨胀格局依然是其主流。不同生活型的物种具有不同的丰富度格局，但是对于环境需求相似的类型具有较相似的丰富度格局。不同的丰富度格局可能由多因素导致，包括：气候，海拔跨度，面积，人为干扰等等。 4）九顶山西坡区系质量评估 我们尝试使用传统的区系质量评估方法对九顶山西坡的区系质量进行评估，并尝试使用一种新的区系质量评估体系对该区的区系进行评价。在九顶山西坡随着海拔梯度的上升，平均保守性系数在各条植被带中均呈现出逐渐上升的趋势。区系质量指数随着海拔的升高都表现为双峰模型，在植被交错区区系质量指数相对较高，而在海拔的两极，区系质量指数都很低。大部分地区使用新方法计算所得的加权平均保守性系数和区系质量指数都比传统方法计算的平均保收性系数和区系质量指数要高，说明在九顶山西坡的三条样带中，大部分地区都是那些保守性系数较高的物种占据优势，同时也表明九顶山西坡具有很高质量的区系和自然植被。 5）龙肘山种子植物区系的性质和特点 龙肘山种子植物区系的物种较为丰富，共有154 科，544 属，1156 种。科的优势十分明显，单种属和寡种属数量众多，说明本区系植物成分较为复杂、起源古老、物种多样性指数较高。地理成分复杂，分布类型多样，其中热带成分在总数量上高于温带成分，但是许多温带成分的属是该区植被的重要建群类群和优势类群，表现出明显的亚热带性质。 6）龙肘山生物多样性的现状和特点 在海拔梯度上，龙肘山地区无论是科、属、种的数量，还是不同等级分类单元之间的数量比，均呈现先升后降的趋势，并在中海拔地区达到峰值。物种多样性指数从总体上来说变化幅度不大，略有先升后降的趋势，在中海拔梯度物种多样性最高。乔、灌、草三层的多样性指数表现出乔木层<灌木层<草本层的特征；乔木层均匀度的变化很大，而灌木层和草本层均匀度的变化较小；灌木层均匀度的波动又强于草本层。β－多样性指数呈现单峰模式，中海拔地区最高。就龙肘山东、西坡物种多样性相比较而言，两者虽然在数值上交替上升，但是却体现出了较为一致的趋势，但西坡因受到干热河谷气候的影响，其平均气温要高于东坡，导致了东坡植物群落和物种的分布比西坡要低。在区系成分构成上，低山区的相同海拔段，西坡的热带亚热带成分所占的比例要比东坡高，这是因为西坡的平均气温比东坡稍高，导致了热带、亚热带物种分布更多。而随着海拔的上升，东、西两坡的气候、土壤等条件趋于一致，其植物区系成分的构成格局也趋于一致。 The Hengduan Mountain region is a very natural floristic region; it belongs toChina-Himalaya sub-region of Holarctic region in floristic subarea of China. The flora in this areais rich in family, genus and species; has a very complex composition of geographical elements;especially with high richness of endemic species and obvious substitution phenomenon. Thisregion as a hot-spot area of floristic and biodiversity, has fascinated biologists in the world for along time. The eastern range of Hengduan Mountain is the transition zone of China – Himalayaforest sub-region and China-Japan forest sub-region in floristic. The water systems are quitedifferent, Minjiang River in the north and Jishajiang River in the south grow quit different but alsoabundant plant species and vegetation resources. The similarity and correlativity of Minjiang River dry valleys and Jinshajiang River dry valleys have provided advantageous condition tocontrast flora and biodiversity between north and south. In the present study, the Jiuding Mountainlies in the north of Hengduan Mountain and belongs to Minjiang River, and the LongzhouMountain lies in the south of Hengduan Mountain and belongs to Jinshajiang River. In our study, we combined the methods of floristic research and biodiversity investigation toexplore the resources of plant species and vegetations; sampled with transects along the altitudinalgradients and also with transverse straps with similar elevation; collected the vascular plant specimen with sampling plots of ecology. We explored the plant species richness patterns alongaltitudinal gradients and discussed the underlying factors aroused these patterns; and used a novelmethod to assess the quality of Jiuding Mountain’s flora. All for a deeper comprehension of the plant recourses of this region; and provided feasible and reasonable suggestion for the protectionof resources. The results were as follows: 1 The characteristic of the flora of the west slope of Jiuding Mountain We had collected 1707 species of vascular plants belonging to 617 genera in 140 families inthe west slope of Jiuding Mountain，in which included 1616 seed plant species belonging to 572genera and 117 families. As for the composition of the areal types of the Families of seed plants,tropic components and temperate components are well-balanced, and percentage of tropicscomponents is higher than that of temperate ones for a litter bit. This shows the flora in the westslope of Jiuding Mountain has strong relationship with the tropic flora. But for the composition ofthe areal types of genera, temperate components have far exceeded the tropics ones, indicated thewhole flora with a conspicuous temperate character. Temperate components possess maximumproportion in the west slope of Jiuding Mountain, and many of them belong to constructivespecies and dominant species in the vegetation, are most important components in JiudingMountain’s Flora, also have embodied the temperate character of this area sufficiently. 2 Biodiversity patterns along altitudinal gradients in different vegetation transects in the westslope of Jiuding Mountain Based on the investigation of three vegetation transects (including Tumen-Duantouya transect,Chashan-Jiudingshan transect and Yanmengou-Guangguangshan Transect) in the west slope ofJiuding Mountain, we found the change of biodiversity along the altitude gradients displayedcertain regularity, but have differences among different transects. The three transects belong todifferent water systems; the Tumen-Duantouya transect belongs to Fujiang River, and the othertwo belong to Minjiang River. From the similarity of species compositions of different transects,we found different water system didn’t show obvious impact on the species composition. In all thethree transects, the species richness of herb layer was remarkably higher than shrub and tree layer,and the species richness of tree layer was the lowest one. With the increasing of the altitude, theline of α-diversity was monotonically decreasing curve in Tumen-Duantouya transect, andbimodal curve in Chashan-Jiudingshan transect, but in Yanmengou-Guangguangshan transectshowed a wave-like curve although not very obvious. Species evenness showed monotonicallydecreasing trends in Tumen-Duantouya transect, and very low at mid-altitude in Yanmengou-Guangguangshan transect, but in Chashan-Jiudingshan transect changed irregularly. Changes inβ-diversity corresponded with the transition of vegetation in the Tumen-Duantouya transect andChashan-Jiudingshan transect, and the curve of β-diversity along altitude had obvious turningpoint; but in Yanmengou-Guangguangshan transect had no obvious turning point, and thesubstitution phenomenon was not obvious, transverse vegetation straps distributed interlaced. 3 Richness patterns of vascular plant species along altitude in the west slope of Jiuding Mountain Direct gradient analysis and regression methods were used to describe the species richnesspatterns along the altitudinal for Mt. Jiuding, as well as separately for Tumen-Duantouya Transectand Yanmengou-Guangguangshan Transect. Altitudinal gradient of diversity of units at differenttaxonomic level (including Family, Genus and Species) and at different life form (including tree,shrub, pteridophyte, grass and other herb) were tested to find differences among the richnesspattern. We found altitudinal richness also shows different patterns, and both monotonicallydecreasing pattern and hump-shaped pattern can be founded in vascular species richness. Speciesin different life forms show different altitudinal patterns, but those species with similarrequirements to environmental conditions show similar richness patterns along altitudinalgradients. Different richness patterns can be aroused by different climate, different altitudinal span,area factor, anthropogenic factor and so on. 4 Floristic quality assessments in the west slope of Jiuding Mountain We used both the conventional method broadly adopted in the USA and the new one toassess the floristic quality in the west slope of Jiuding Mountain. The Mean Coefficient ofConservatism (MC) had the trend of increment along the altitudinal gradients. The FloristicQuality Index (FQI) was a bimodal curve with increasing of elevation; FQI got maximum valuesin the transition zones of different vegetations in the middle altitude, and had very low values atthe two end of elevation. In most areas of the west slope of the Jiuding Mountain, the resultscalculated using the new methods were higher than those using the conventional method. Thisindicated the dominant species of the communities had very high coefficients of conservatism inmost areas of Jiuding Mountain, and the communities are relatively kept pristine and the habitats very integrative. 5 The characteristic of the flora of Longzhou Mountain The flora of Longzhou Mountain has very abundant in species composition; there are about1156 species of seed plants belonging to 544 genera in 154 families. In which, twelve families with more than 20 species include totally 232 genera and 532 species, and form the majority of itsflora. The origin of its flora is old, monospecific genera and oligotypic genera amounts to 510 innumber, which constitute 93.75% of total number of genera. The geographical components arevarious in Longzhou Mountain, the majority of flora are temperate and pantropic ones. The tropiccomponents overtopped temperate components on genera quantity, but many temperatecomponents belong to constructive species and dominant species in the vegetation, and the wholeflora shows an obvious subtropical character. 6 Current situation and characteristic of biodiversity in Longzhou Mountain With the increasing of altitude, the number of species, genus, family and the ratios ofdifferent taxonomic levels all displayed a trend of descending after rising first, and peaked atmiddle height area. The change of α-diversity was not very acutely, with the trend of descendingafter rising first in some degree, the middle height area had highest α-diversity. As studying thetree layer, shrub layer and herb layer respectively, the Shannon-Wiener index was in followingorder: tree layer < shrub layer < herb layer; the change of evenness was more complicatedly thanthat of diversity, the tree layer changed acutely, but the shrub layer and herb layer fluctuatedsmoothly. Changes in β-diversity also showed the trend of descending after rising first. TheJaccard index and Cody index all peaked at the middle height forest area. As for the comparison ofplant diversity and evenness between the west and east slope, the numerical values ascendedalternatively, but the trend of changing was similar. The distribution of similar plant communitiesand species in east slope were lower than the west slope for the influence of Jinsha River DryValley. As for the composition of different floristic components, in lower altitude area of westslope, the tropic and sub-tropic plants had higher ratio than east slope’s and even could be equal tothe temperate plants. With the increasing of elevation, the floristic composition become morelikely between the east and west slope and temperate plants dominated the flora.

若尔盖湿地3种两栖类的种间竞争及畜牧业对其食性的影响

从空间、时间、食物3个方面研究了若尔盖湿地3种两栖类的种间竞争，运用生态位理论探讨了3种两栖类利用环境资源的能力以及它们之间的共存模式，研究了3种两栖类年周期食性，并考察了畜牧业对3种两栖类食性及食物竞争格局的影响；此外，还通过实验室研究对2种两栖类幼体的种间竞争策略进行了考察。主要结果如下： 1、两栖类的空间资源利用状况：在3种两栖类成体生态位宽度的比较中，岷山蟾蜍（Bufo minshanicus）成体在牧场性质(0.41)、牛粪数量(0.42)、植被盖度(0.20)、地表温度(0.50)、地表湿度(0.51) 5个维度上的生态位宽度最窄；而倭蛙（Nanorana pleskei）成体在牛粪数量(0.81)、植被高度(0.63)、植被盖度(0.47)、小水体距离(0.68) 4个维度上的生态位宽度最宽。在3种两栖类亚成体生态位宽度的比较中，岷山蟾蜍亚成体在牧场性质(0.66)、牛粪数量(0.58)、植被高度(0.64)、小水体距离(0.51)、地表湿度(0.79) 5个维度的上生态位宽度最宽；倭蛙亚成体在牧场性质(0.39)、牛粪数量(0.30)、地表温度(0.18)、地表湿度(0.33) 4个维度上的生态位宽度最窄。高原林蛙（Rana kukunoris）在地表温度（成体：0.62；亚成体：0.56）、地表湿度（成体：0.84；亚成体：0.60）两个维度上具有较大的生态位宽度值，而在小水体距离维度上（成体：0.27；亚成体：0.14）的生态位宽度值则很小。比较3种无尾两栖类在不同生长阶段（成体、亚成体）的生态位宽度，发现高原林蛙和倭蛙的亚成体对栖息环境的要求更高。3种两栖类空间资源利用的相似程度很高，高原林蛙与倭蛙之间的生态重叠度(0.87)较之它与岷山蟾蜍(0.81)的生态位重叠度更大。 2、两栖类的日活动节律：高原林蛙成体、亚成体、岷山蟾蜍亚成体活动的最低气温为0℃、2℃、8℃；岷山蟾蜍和高原林蛙亚成体出现的数量与气温成极显著的正相关（r=0.797, p<0.001；r=0.794, p<0.001），高原林蛙成体出现的数量与气温有一定相关性（r=0.456, p<0.05）；晴天时两栖类的活动性明显高于阴天（p<0.001）；多云转晴天气，高原林蛙和岷山蟾蜍亚成体出现两次日活动高峰，分别为中午12:30左右和下午15:30～16:30之间；多云天气，高原林蛙和岷山蟾蜍亚成体出现两次日活动高峰，分别为9:30～10:30之间和15:30～16:30之间。 3、两栖类的食物资源利用状况：春、秋两季，高原林蛙最主要的食物是蜉金龟科(Aphodiidae)昆虫，相对重要性指数(IRI)最高（春季：35.28%，秋季：28.57%），其次为昆虫的幼虫，以及双翅目的毛蚊科(Bibionidae)、蝇科(Muscidae)、丽蝇科(Calliphoridae)昆虫，秋季，蝗虫是高原林蛙食物组成中的重要部分；岷山蟾蜍最主要的食物是蚂蚁(IRI，春季：85.54%，秋季：49.70%)，其次为蜉金龟科、象甲科(Curculionidae)、步甲科(Carabidae)、粪金龟科(Geotrupidae) 等鞘翅目昆虫；倭蛙春季的最主要食物也是蜉金龟科昆虫(IRI，春季：13.41%)，其次为蚂蚁、毛蚊科昆虫、昆虫的幼虫以及狼蛛科(Lycosidae)。3种两栖类中，倭蛙的食性生态位宽度相对较宽（0.43），而岷山蟾蜍（0.09）和高原林蛙（0.22）的生态位宽度较窄，与春季相比，两栖类在秋季的食谱更宽。以利用食物种类为标准，春季高原林蛙与倭蛙的生态位重叠度(0.40)比它与岷山蟾蜍的生态位重叠度（0.33）更大。 4、畜牧业对两栖类食性及食物竞争格局的影响：以藏牦牛粪为食物或寄居场所的昆虫，如蜉金龟科、粪金龟科、毛蚊科、蝇科、丽蝇科昆虫和某些昆虫幼虫，是3种两栖类食物谱中最主要的组成部分，蜉金龟科昆虫在高原林蛙食谱中的比例更高，高原林蛙可能从畜牧业发展中获得更多的好处，使之在食物竞争方面处于优势地位。与无放牧样地相比，在有放牧样地的中，两栖类食谱中的蜉金龟科昆虫数量更多(有放牧：31.94%；无放牧：21.32%)、出现频率更高(有放牧：76.38%；无放牧：44%)。然而在不同样地上（有放牧/无放牧），两栖类的食物组成无显著性差异(P=0.188)，两栖类的数量(P=0.075)、肥满度(P=0.537)均没有显著差别。 5、两栖类幼体的竞争策略：实验室条件下，通过活动性水平，变态时的体重、增长率和完成变态所需时间考察自然条件下常同水塘分布的中华蟾蜍（Bufo gargarizans）和高原林蛙蝌蚪的竞争策略。结果表明：中华蟾蜍蝌蚪在不同食物资源条件下，所选择的生存策略可能不同，即食物资源充足时，增加活动性获取更多食物，食物资源有限时，降低活动性且提前完成变态；与中华蟾蜍蝌蚪相比，在食物资源有限时高原林蛙蝌蚪获取食物能力可能更强。 This paper presented the study of competition of three amphibians (Rana kukunoris, Nanorana pleskei, Bufo minshanicus) based on spatial, temporal and dietary scales in Zoige wetland. We measured coexistence patterns of three amphibians and analyzed their ability of exploiting resource. Effects of grazing on the diet composition and diet competition of amphibians were analyzed by their diet composition during spring and autumn. Furthermore, we examined the competitive ability of larval common frogs (Rana kukunoris)and common toads(Bufo gargarizans) in a laboratory experiment, and analyzed their competitive strategies respectively. The results were as follows: 1 .The status of using spatial resource Niche breadths of B. minshanicus adults on 5 dimensional axes including character of pasture(0.41), number of yaks dung(0.42), vegetation coverage(0.20), temperature (0.50)and humidity(0.51) of ground surface were narrower than adults of R. kukunoris and N. pleskei. Niche breadths of B. minshanicus subadults were broader than R.kukunoris subadults and N.pleskei subadults on 5 dimensional axes including character of pasture (0.66), number of yaks dung (0.58), vegetation height (0.64), distance to small waterbodies (0.51), humidity of ground surface (0.79). Niche breadths of N. pleskei subadults were the narrowest in three anurans subadults on 4 dimensional axes including character of pasture (0.39), number of yaks dung (0.30), temperature (0.18) and humidity (0.33) of ground surface, niche breadths of N. pleskei adults were the broadest in three anurans adults on 4 dimensional axes including number of yaks dung (0.81), vegetation height (0.63) and coverage(0.47), distance to small waterbodies(0.68).Comparatively, niche breadths of R. kukunoris were broader on the two microclimate factors including temperature(adults：0.62；subadults：0.56) and humidity (adults：0.84；subadults：0.60)of ground surface, but was narrow on distance to small waterbodies(adults：0.27；subadults：0.14). Strategies for using habitat resource of adults and subadults of the three species anuran were different. Generally, subadults of R. kukunoris and N. pleskei needs better habitat condition. It was quite similar that three anurans exploited spatial resource, Niche overlap between R. kukunoris and N. pleskei (0.87) was greater than that between R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus(0.81). 2.Daily activity rhythm R. kukunoris audlts were active when air temperatures were as low as 0℃, R. kukunoris subadults were active at 2℃, B.minshanicus subaudlts were active at 8℃. Positive correlation was found between activities of amphibians and air temperature, Subadults of R.kukunoris, (r=0.797, p<0.001), Subadults,of,B.minshanicus, (r=0.794, p<0.001), andbadults,of,R.kukunoris(r=0.456, p<0.05).Amphibians were more active during sunny days than cloudy days. In cloudy turning into sunny, R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus subadults had two active peak: at noon about 12:30 and 15:30～16:30 pm; in cloudy, R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus subadult had two active peak too : 9:30～10:30am,15:30～16:30pm. 3.Diet analysis Aphodiidae was the most commonly consumed food item by R. kukunoris based on index of relative importance (IRI) during spring (35.28%) and autumn (28.57%) in Zogie wetland. Besides Aphodiidae, larval insect, dipterans such as Bibionidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae also were important food item for R. kukunoris, in autumn, locust was one of important food item for R. kukunoris. The most important food item for B.minshanicus during spring (IRI:85.54%) and autumn (IRI:49.70%) was ants, following, was coleopterans, such as Aphodiidae, dung beetle. Aphodiidae (IRI:13.41%) were the most important consumed food item by N. pleskei during spring too, following, was ants and Bibionidae. Dietary breadth of N. pleskei (0.43) were greater than R. kukunoris (0.22) and B. minshanicus (0.09). As a whole, Dietary breadth of amphibians during aurumn were greater than spring. Based on prey item, dietary overlap between R. kukunoris and N. pleskei (0.40) was greater than that between R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus (0.33) during spring. 4.Effects of grazing on the diet composition and diet competition of amphibians Amphibians are an important part of the pasture ecosystems as prey and predator. In Zogie wetland, major diet of amphibians was closely associated with dung of yaks, for example, Aphodiidae, Bibionidae, Muscidae, dung beetle. Dung of yaks was major diet and habitat of these insects. Proportion of Aphodiidae was higher in diet composition of R. kukunoris than N. pleskei and B.minshanicus, with development of pasturage, R. kukunoris may have a diet competitive advantage over N. pleskei and B.minshanicus. Number of Aphodiidae in diet composition of amphibians was higher in samples with grazing (31.94%) than in those without grazing (21.32%). Occurrence Frequency of Aphodiidae in diet composition of amphibians was higher in samples with grazing (76.38%) than in those without grazing (44%). However, There was not significantly different on diet composition (P=0.188), and number (P=0.075) and the relative fatness (P=0.537) of amphibians between grazing samples and without grazing. 5.Competitive strategies of amphibian larvae I examined the competitive ability of larval toads (Bufo gargarizans) and frogs (Rana kukunoris) which co-occur in the nature pond by activity level, the growth rate and mass at metamorphosis and larval period in a laboratory experiment. The results suggest: In laborary, B.gargarizans adapted himself to different food level by changing activity. At high food level, B. gargarizans increased activity to gain more diet. At low food level, B. gargarizans decreased activity and achieved early metamorphosis. When food resource was limit, R. kukunoris could gain more food than B. gargarizans.

碱法草浆造纸蒸煮黑液厌氧生物降解性及其主要微生物类群研究

造纸行业是造成我国水环境有机污染物的重要污染源之一，其水污染的特点是小厂多、草浆多、工艺落后、污染扩散面广、造成废 水排放量大，每年排放的废水量约39亿立方米，占全国工业废水排放量的1/6，其中有机污染物（以BOD5计）160万吨左右，约占全 国工业废水中有机污染物总量的1/4。尤以占全国制浆造纸行业90%以上的碱法草浆造纸厂的蒸煮黑液量大面广，除含有机物外，还 含有木质素、残碱、硫化物、氯化物等污染物，属于PH值高、色度深、难于治理的高浓度有机废水，对水体污染特别严重，各地要 求治理呼声很高，急待研究并尽快找出各种有效的治理途径。对于碱法草浆蒸煮，黑液高浓度废水的治理，有各种方法，根据国内 的研究进展和我们已有试验工作表明，最经济有效，具有实用价值，在生产上可获得成功是厌氧处理法。近10多年来，国外关于高 效厌氧处理技术研究进展迅速，并出现了多种多样的工艺设备，如高效厌氧生物反应器，并在实用化方面取得了很大成绩，建立了 生产性装置，达到了高负荷运行，效果良好。本试验是根据我们已有研究基础，针对我国国情，对小型制浆造纸厂水污染防治除了 开发碱回收及各种综合利用技术外，要特别加强废水(废液)实用技术研究的指导思想，本试验采用改进型的上流式厌氧污泥床反应 器，设计了两种试验方案，通过试验结果如下。1. 试验方案I—碱法草浆黑液酸化和厌氧发酵I号UASB反应器动态模型试验结果表 明：(1). 采用中温35℃±1℃高效厌氧反应器USAB内装有填料(陶粒)和三相分离器，具有保持高浓度生物量和防止污泥流失的特点 ，污泥浓度Vs 可达30%以上，因而具有高效、节能、产能、滞留期短的优点，当进水CODcr在7500-10000mg/l，HRT由7天缩短到3天 ，有机容积负荷在1.22gCODcr/l·d-3.43gCODcr/l·d时，CODcr平均去除率可达55%-45.5%，最高CODcr去除率可达60.2-63.5%， BOD5去除率可达75.9-83.2%,沼气容积产气率可达0.29-0.67l/l·d，每克CODcr转化为沼气产率达0.39-0.48l/gCODcr·d，CH4含量 65.8-75.5%。厌氧发酵出水再用化学法进行后处理脱除难降解的木质素，CODcr总去除率达80%以上。(2). 动态试验结果表明：采 用酸化—厌氧发酵处理黑液工艺合理，技术路线可行。2. 试验方案II—黑液用化学法(Hcl)去除木质素进行厌氧发酵，II号UASB反 应器动态模型试验结果表明：(1). 采用中温35℃±1℃高效厌氧反应器UASB(内有软填料)，当进水CODcr7000-13000mg/l左右，HRT 由6天缩短到1天，有机负荷由0.98gCODcr/l·d增加到11gCODcr/l·d时，COD平均去除率均可稳定在70-77%，BOD5去除率为87.3- 93.1%，沼气容积产气率0.21-2.6l/l·d，每克CODcr转化为沼气产率为0.39-0.48l/gCODcr·d，高的可达0.53l/gCODcr·d，转化 率较高，CH4含量63-70%。(2). 试验证明碱法草浆黑液物化预处理—厌氧发酵处理的技术路线也是可行的，工艺合理、效果较好。 在有条件的工厂可采用。3.厌氧发酵阶段几大类群微生物计数表明：(1). 当发酵工艺和运行处于相对稳定状态时，微生物群体的 组成也达到相对的稳定，各类微生物之间保持动态平衡关系。当产乙酸菌的数量为107-108个/ml时，产甲烷菌的数量为105-106 个/ml，当产乙酸菌数量为106-107个/ml时，产甲烷菌的数量为103-105个/ml。(2).稳态运行条件下，黑液预处理为甲烷发酵创造 了有利的生态环境，获得了较好的处理效果和较高的COD转化为沼气的产率0.39-0.48l/g·CODcr·d，反应器中形成较为稳定而数 量较下水污泥中高1-2个数量级的厌氧发酵微生物区系组成。这一结果为黑液厌氧发酵提供了微生物理论依据。Paper industry is one of the important pollution source of water environment in our country. Its character of water pollution is many small factories, much grass pulp, disadvantageous technique, large preading area of pullution. Its effluent makes up 1/6 of whole country's industry wastwater. Its organic pollutant accounts 1/4 of whole country's. Alkaline grass paper pulp effluent with pollutants such as ligoin, remaining alkali sulfide, chloride besides organic material, is a kind of high concentrate organic wastewater which has high PH walug, dark colour and is difficult in treatment. There is urgent require to find ways to treat the wastewater. There are different ways to treat alkaline paper grass pulp effluent. According to the research advances and our experiment work, the most economical and useful way is anaerobic degradation which was advanced quick in last ten years. In the control of waste water of small pulp paper mill, the study of wastewater utilization technology should be emphasized, besides alkaline retrieving and different kinds of comprehensive utilization technology. Our experiment used modified UASB(Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor). Two kinds of plan were disgned. The results are lined below. 1. The first experiment plant-aciding black pulp effluent and methanogenic digestion. The dynamic model experiment results of I-UASB reactor showed: (1)The mesophilic(35℃±1℃)high effect UASB reactor having haydite and threee state seperation in it had the character of keeping high bioimass concentration and preventing losss of sludge. It had advantages of high effect, energe saving, energe prodcing and short HRT(Hydroulic retention time). When the influent COD was 7500-10000mg, HRT was shortened from 7 days to 3days, organic loading rate was 1.22g-3.43COD/l· d, the average COD removal efficiency was 55%-45%. The highest COD efficiency was 60.2-63.5%, BOD removal of 75.9 -83.4% was achieved. Biogass production rate were up to 0.29-0.67l/l·d. Biogass converted efficiency from every gram of COD could reach 0.39-0.48l/gCOD·d. Methane content was 65.0-75.5%. Chemical method was used to deplate lignin in anaerobic digestion effluent. Total COD removal efficiency could be more than 80%. (2)Using aciding annaerobic digestion to treat the black effluent was reseanable in technique and technology. 2. The second experiment plan-anaerobic digestion was used after the chemical method was used to deplate lignin in the black effluent. The result of dynamic experiment of II-UASB reactor showed: (1)High effect mesophilic (35℃±1℃)UASB reactor having soft slaffing in was used. When influent COD was about 7000-13000mg/l, HRT was shortened from 6 days to 1 day and organic loading rate was increased from 0.90 to 11g COD /l·d, average COD removal efficiency remained stable on 70-77%. BOD, removal efficiency was between 87.3-93.1%. Biogass production rate was 0.2-2.6l/l ·d .Biogass converted efficiency from a gram of COD was 0.39-0.481/gCOD·d with the high value of 0.53l/gCOD·d. Methane content was 63-70%. (2)The way that using physical, chemical Pre-treatment-anaerobic digestion to treat alkaline black effluent is feasible and can be used in some factories when the condition exists. 3. Counting of several class of microoganisms in anaerobic digestion stage showed: (1)As the disgestion was in stable motion, the compositon of microorganic colony could get relative stable. Dynamic balance was remaining among different kinds of microorganism such as methanogenic bacteria, Acidogenic bacteria, sulfate reducing bacteria, and heterotrophic bacteria. (2)Under stable motion, the pre-treatment of black effluent produced favourable eco-enviroment for methanegenic digestion. Good treatment effect and high biogass convertent efficiency from COD(0.39-0.48l/g·COD· d)were gotten. Some stable and high quantity(10-100times more than sewage sludge)microorganism colony were formed in the reactor. This result provided theoretical basis for anaerobic digestion of black effluent.