Temperature and biomass influences on interannual changes in CO2 exchange in an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Three years of eddy covariance measurements were used to characterize the seasonal and interannual variability of the CO2 fluxes above an alpine meadow (3250 m a.s.l.) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. This alpine meadow was a weak sink for atmospheric CO2, with a net ecosystem production (NEP) of 78.5, 91.7, and 192.5 g C m(-2) yr(-1) in 2002, 2003, and 2004, respectively. The prominent, high NEP in 2004 resulted from the combination of high gross primary production (GPP) and low ecosystem respiration (R-e) during the growing season. The period of net absorption of CO2 in 2004, 179 days, was 10 days longer than that in 2002 and 5 days longer than that in 2003. Moreover, the date on which the mean air temperature first exceeded 5.0 degrees C was 10 days earlier in 2004 (DOY110) than in 2002 or 2003. This date agrees well with that on which the green aboveground biomass (Green AGB) started to increase. The relationship between light-use efficiency and Green AGB was similar among the three years. In 2002, however, earlier senescence possibly caused low autumn GPP, and thus the annual NEP, to be lower. The low summertime R-e in 2004 was apparently caused by lower soil temperatures and the relatively lower temperature dependence of R-e in comparison with the other years. These results suggest that (1) the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau plays a potentially significant role in global carbon sequestration, because alpine meadow covers about one-third of this vast plateau, and (2) the annual NEP in the alpine meadow was comprehensively controlled by the temperature environment, including its effect on biomass growth.

Characterizing CO2 fluxes for growing and non-growing seasons in a shrub ecosystem on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

To assess carbon budget for shrub ecosystems on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, CO2 flux was measured with an open-path eddy covariance system for an alpine shrub ecosystem during growing and non-growing seasons. CO2 flux dynamics was distinct between the two seasons. During the growing season from May to September, the ecosystem exhibited net CO2 uptake from 08:00 to 19:00 (Beijing Standard Time), but net CO2 emission from 19:00 to 08:00. Maximum CO2 uptake appeared around 12:00 with values of 0.71, 1,19, 1.46 and 0.67 g CO2 m(-2) h(-1) for June, July, August and September, respectively. Diurnal fluctuation Of CO2 flux showed higher correlation with photosynthetic photon flux density than temperature. The maximum net CO2 influx occurred in August with a value of 247 g CO2 m(-2). The total CO2 uptake by the ecosystem was up to 583 g CO2 m(-2) for the growing season. During the non-growing season from January to April and from October to December, CO2 flux showed small fluctuation with the largest net CO2 efflux of 0.30 g CO2 m(-2) h(-1) in April. The diurnal CO2 flux was close to zero during most time of the day, but showed a small net CO2 eff lux from 11:00 to 18:00. Diurnal CO2 flux, is significantly correlated to diurnal temperature in the non-growing season. The maximum monthly net CO2 eff lux appeared in April, with a value of 105 g CO2 m(-2). The total net CO2 eff lux for the whole non-growing season was 356 g CO2 m(-2).

Energy exchange between the atmosphere and a meadow ecosystem on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

To reveal the potential contribution of grassland ecosystems to climate change, we examined the energy exchange over an alpine Kobresia meadow on the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The annual pattern of energy exchange showed a clear distinction between periods of frozen soil with the daily mean soil temperature at 5 cm (T-s5 ≤ 0 ° C) and non-frozen soil (T-s5 > 0 ° C). More than 80% of net radiation was converted to sensible heat (H) during the frozen soil period, but H varied considerably with the change in vegetation during the non-frozen soil period. Three different sub-periods were further distinguished for the later period: (1) the pre-growth period with Bowen ratio (β) > 1 was characterized by a high β of 3.0 in average and the rapid increase of net radiation associated with the increases of H, latent heat (LE) and soil heat; (2) during the Growth period when β ≤ 1, the LE was high but H fluxes was low with β changing between 0.3 and 0.4; (3) the post-growth period with average β of 3.6 when H increased again and reached a second maximum around early October. The seasonal pattern suggests that the phenology of the vegetation and the soil water content were the major factors affecting the energy partitioning in the alpine meadow ecosystem. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Seasonal patterns of gross primary production and ecosystem respiration in an alpine meadow ecosystem on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

We measured the net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) in an alpine meadow ecosystem (latitude 37degrees29'-45'N, longitude 101degrees12'-23'E, 3250 m above sea level) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau throughout 2002 by the eddy covariance method to examine the carbon dynamics and budget on this unique plateau. Diurnal changes in gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (R-e) showed that an afternoon increase of NEE was highly associated with an increase of R-e. Seasonal changes in GPP corresponded well to changes in the leaf area index and daily photosynthetic photon flux density. The ratio of GPP/R-e was high and reached about 2.0 during the peak growing season, which indicates that mainly autotrophic respiration controlled the carbon dynamics of the ecosystem. Seasonal changes in mean GPP and R-e showed compensatory behavior as reported for temperate and Mediterranean ecosystems, but those of GPP(max) and R-emax were poorly synchronized. The alpine ecosystem exhibited lower GPP (575 g C m(-2) y(-1)) than, but net ecosystem production (78.5 g C m(-2) y(-1)) similar to, that of subalpine forest ecosystems. The results suggest that the alpine meadow behaved as a CO2 sink during the 1-year measurement period but apparently sequestered a rather small amount of C in comparison with similar alpine ecosystems.

Carbon dioxide exchange between the atmosphere and an alpine meadow ecosystem on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China

We used the eddy covariance method to measure the M exchange between the atmosphere and an alpine meadow ecosystem (37degrees29-45'N, 101degrees12-23'E, 3250m a.s.l.) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China in the 2001 and 2002 growing seasons. The maximum rates Of CO2 uptake and release derived from the diurnal course Of CO2 flux (FCO2) were -10.8 and 4.4 mumol m(-2) s(-1), respectively, indicating a relatively high net carbon sequestration potential as compared to subalpine coniferous forest at similar elevation and latitude. The largest daily CO2 uptake was 3.9 g cm(-2) per day on 7 July 2002, which is less than half of those reported for lowland grassland and forest at similar latitudes. The daily CO2 uptake during the measurement period indicated that the alpine ecosystem might behave as a sink of atmospheric M during the growing season if the carbon lost due to grazing is not significant. The daytime CO2 uptake was linearly correlated with the daily photosynthetic photon flux density each month. The nighttime averaged F-CO2 showed a positive exponential correlation with the soil temperature, but apparently negative correlation with the soil water content. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Turbulent collision of inertial particles: point-particle based, hybrid simulations and beyond

Point-particle based direct numerical simulation (PPDNS) has been a productive research tool for studying both single-particle and particle-pair statistics of inertial particles suspended in a turbulent carrier flow. Here we focus on its use in addressing particle-pair statistics relevant to the quantification of turbulent collision rate of inertial particles. PPDNS is particularly useful as the interaction of particles with small-scale (dissipative) turbulent motion of the carrier flow is mostly relevant. Furthermore, since the particle size may be much smaller than the Kolmogorov length of the background fluid turbulence, a large number of particles are needed to accumulate meaningful pair statistics. Starting from the relative simple Lagrangian tracking of so-called ghost particles, PPDNS has significantly advanced our theoretical understanding of the kinematic formulation of the turbulent geometric collision kernel by providing essential data on dynamic collision kernel, radial relative velocity, and radial distribution function. A recent extension of PPDNS is a hybrid direct numerical simulation (HDNS) approach in which the effect of local hydrodynamic interactions of particles is considered, allowing quantitative assessment of the enhancement of collision efficiency by fluid turbulence. Limitations and open issues in PPDNS and HDNS are discussed. Finally, on-going studies of turbulent collision of inertial particles using large-eddy simulations and particle- resolved simulations are briefly discussed.

内蒙古羊草草原碳通量观测及其驱动机制分析

植被与大气间CO2通量的长期观测能够使人们加深对陆地生态系统在全球碳循环中科学地位的理解。在生态系统水平上，涡度相关技术是评价植被/大气间净生态系统CO2交换量的主要手段。本研究以内蒙古羊草草原通量站为试验平台，以涡度相关技术为主要技术手段，以内蒙古草原生态系统定位研究站羊草草原围封样地2003～2005年开路涡度相关系统观测的CO2通量数据为基础，深入探讨了内蒙古羊草草原生态系统CO2通量不同时间尺度上的变化特征及其驱动机制。 在建立生态系统尺度CO2通量观测基本方法论的前提下，集中探讨了不同时间尺度内蒙古羊草草原生态系统净生态系统碳交换、呼吸作用以及碳吸收的季节变异特征及其控制机制，初步建立了内蒙古羊草草原净生态系统CO2交换量估算的基本方法，可为生态系统过程模拟与模型预测提供科学依据和技术支撑。主要结果包括以下几个方面： 1. 功率谱和协谱分析表明，开路涡度相关系统对高频湍流信号的响应能力可以满足内蒙古草原生态系统实际观测要求。与闭路涡度相关系统和常规气象系统对比分析表明，开路涡度相关系统在CO2通量长期观测中仪器性能稳定，可以满足CO2通量长期观测的客观需要。坐标旋转校正是复杂地形条件下CO2通量测定理想的倾斜校正途径。能量平衡闭合的测试仅可以作为数据质量评价的参考标准之一，而不能作为CO2通量数据质量评价的绝对标准并用于数据校正。 2. 按照CO2通量吸收的高峰特征划分，正常降水年，内蒙古羊草草原CO2通量同时具有一个吸收高峰和两个吸收高峰的特征。而极端干旱年蒙古羊草草原的CO2通量具有两个吸收高峰的特征。在严重干旱胁迫条件下，2005年内蒙古羊草草原生态系统净生态系统交换出现显著下降的趋势。净生态系统交换下降主要是降雨量减少的影响。 3. 通过分析不同时间尺度上CO2通量和环境因子的关系，发现小时尺度上，内蒙古羊草草原生态系统的净生态系统交换主要由光合有效辐射控制，而饱和水汽压差和土壤含水量是影响生态系统光合作用的另外两个关键因素。在更大的时间尺度上降雨量和物候相的变化是调节生态系统碳通量大小的主要因素。最大的生物量和LAI出现的时间和最大的NEE出现的时间相吻合，但是降雨量的变化可以改变这种关系。 4. 在内蒙古羊草草原区>3mm的降雨被认为是对生态系统有效的。土壤含水量(0~20cm)在一次有效降雨事件发生后，约1~2天后才会发生响应， 2003年和2004年，NEE在 >3mm的降雨事件发生后，NEE开始增加，4~6天后达到高峰。随着降雨的结束，NEE在达到高峰后开始降低，10天后达到初始值的60~70%。 5. 在生态系统水平上，温度和土壤水分条件的季节动态是控制生态系统呼吸季节变化模式的重要环境要素，在干旱胁迫的条件下，水分条件也可能成为生态系统呼吸的主导因素，生态系统呼吸在干旱条件降低。

开垦和放牧对内蒙古半干旱草原蒸发散的影响

为了研究开垦和放牧对内蒙古半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散的影响，我们以内蒙古锡林郭勒盟多伦县的草地和农田以及锡林浩特围封草地和退化草地为实验样地，利用涡度协方差技术对四个样地2006-2007年的蒸发散和微气象因子进行连续测定，探讨开垦和放牧对内蒙古半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散的影响及其驱动机制。同时利用稳定同位素技术区分多伦半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散的组分，初步探讨生态系统蒸发散各组分的变化特征及其驱动因子。 在观测的两年里，四个生态系统的年蒸发散接近或超过了年降雨量。在较湿润年份（2006年）的生长季（5-9月），开垦使得半干旱草原的蒸发散降低了15%，而在较干旱年份（2007年）降低了7%。放牧在2006年生长季期间使草原生态系统蒸发散降低了13%，而在2007年生长季里，围封草地和退化草地的蒸发散没有显著性差异。开垦和放牧造成的土壤含水量显著下降是生态系统蒸发散降低的最主要的原因。此外，农田开垦改变了植被的种类和物候特征，缩短了植物的生长期（农作物的生长期主要是6-8月，而草地的生长季一般为5-9月），是造成农田整个生长季的蒸发散比草地低的另一个原因。干旱年份降雨量少、土壤含水量低，限制了植被的生长，降低了冠层导度，从而导致了植物蒸腾的下降。另一方面，在干旱年份，开垦和放牧增加了草原生态系统蒸发散对土壤含水量变化的敏感性，表明未来降雨格局的变化不仅直接通过影响土壤含水量来改变蒸发散，而且会影响蒸发散和土壤含水量之间的相关性。 通过研究生态系统对不同强度和不同时间降雨的响应表明，> 3 mm的降雨会增加内蒙古半干旱草原生态系统的土壤含水量和蒸发散，对内蒙古半干旱草原生态系统关键过程有效。雨后1-2天蒸发散达到峰值，之后下降。多数大的降雨事件后，农田和退化草地蒸发散峰值比相对应的草地高，之后下降的也快，这与植被的生长状况、凋落物的量和地面的裸露程度有关。雨后土壤含水量和蒸发散的变化与降雨事件的大小呈正相关的关系，并且蒸发散的变化与土壤含水量的变化有显著的线性相关性，说明了土壤含水量是影响蒸发散变化的主要因子。土壤含水量初始值和干旱期的长短会影响内蒙古半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散对降雨的响应。土壤含水量初始值低会增强蒸发散对降雨的响应，而土壤含水量初始值高时，蒸发散对降雨的响应会下降。干旱期长会增强蒸发散对降雨的瞬时响应。围封草地由于有凋落物的缓冲和保水作用，未来降雨强度的增加会促进围封草原植被的生长;而退化草地地表裸露，对大的降雨事件缓冲作用小，地表径流和土壤蒸发强烈，不利于保水和植被的生长。因此，未来极端降雨事件频率的增加和干旱期的延长势必会对半干旱草原生态系统产生影响，尤其对退化草地产生不利影响。 为了进一步了解蒸发散组分的变化规律及其驱动因子，我们利用稳定同位素与微气象技术相结合的方法，区分半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散的组分。区分结果表明，在2006年和2007年整个生长季期间，植物蒸腾均为蒸发散的主要形式，在2006年和2007年生长季期间植物蒸腾占蒸发散的比例分别为88%和73%。影响植物蒸腾的因子主要是净辐射、大气相对湿度、土壤含水量和叶面积指数;影响蒸发的因子主要是大气相对湿度、土壤含水量和风速;而影响蒸发散的因子主要是净辐射、大气相对湿度、土壤含水量和风速，说明了这些水分流失过程受到不同环境因子的驱动。此外，我们根据一个简单的模型把同位素方法区分的蒸发散组分外推到整个生长季，结果表明，在2006年和2007年整个生长季蒸腾与蒸发散的比例高，并且蒸腾与降雨量的比例高，由此说明，半干旱草原生态系统植被能够有效地利用水分，雨水利用效率高。生态系统总初级生产力（GPP）与植物蒸腾（T）存在明显的正相关关系，从5-8月，生态系统水分利用效率（GPP/T）逐渐升高。 我们的研究结果表明：人类的活动如开垦和放牧通过改变植被类型、土壤持水能力和蒸发散对土壤含水量的响应，降低了草原生态系统的蒸发散，增加了生态系统蒸发散对降雨响应的敏感性，不利于土壤的保水和植被对水分的利用。半干旱草原生态系统蒸发散组分的稳定同位素技术区分，为进一步从新的角度探讨土地利用方式的改变对草原生态系统蒸发散影响的生理机制提供了可能。

克氏针茅草原的碳通量与碳收支

植被和大气之间CO2通量的长期观测有助于理解陆地生态系统的碳循环及其控制机理，评价生态系统碳循环及其对未来气候变化的响应。本研究以中国北方克氏针茅草原为研究对象，以涡度相关法为主要技术手段，利用克氏针茅草原观测站碳通量的长期连续观测数据，探讨了环境因子在不同时间尺度上对克氏针茅草原光合生产力(GEP)、系统呼吸(Re)和净CO2交换(NEE)的影响，分析了克氏针茅草原碳通量的季节变化和年际碳收支动态。主要得到以下结论： (1) 温度和土壤水分是调控克氏针茅草原光响应曲线的关键环境因子。10-20oC是克氏针茅草原瞬时GEP的最适温度，15-20oC是日GEP的最适温度。GEP日总值随土壤水分的增加呈二次曲线关系，当土壤含水量(SWC)超过0.2 m3m-3时，GEP日总值不再增加。 (2) 克氏针茅草原Re同时受温度和土壤水分的控制。降雨脉冲对短期系统呼吸有激发作用。Lloyd & Taylor方程对Re的拟合效果好于指数方程。 (3) 克氏针茅草原表现出白天净碳吸收和夜间净碳释放的日变化特征，并且往往出现上午碳吸收强、下午碳吸收弱的不对称现象。降雨的季节分布通过SWC的季节变异间接影响克氏针茅草原NEE的季节变化。在日尺度上，NEE主要受温度和土壤水分的控制，10-20oC的空气温度有助于克氏针茅草原吸收CO2。在月尺度上，NEE主要受土壤水分的控制。 (4) 生长季的长度是决定克氏针茅草原源汇变化的关键因子。 (5) 克氏针茅草原的GEP、Re和NEE都具有非常明显的季节变化。冬季或干旱胁迫下量级较低，温暖和湿润季节的量级较高。干旱胁迫同时抑制植被的GEP和Re，对GEP的抑制强度更大，随着土壤水分的下降，不同尺度的NEE累积值逐渐向正值转变，即生态系统由碳汇转变为碳源。 (6) 克氏针茅草原2005年降雨量只有174mm，当年GEP和Re也是三年中最低的，只有101和169gCm-2yr-1;2006年降雨量为215mm，GEP和Re是三年中最强的，分别为149 和187gCm-2yr-1;2004年降雨量为297mm，接近多年平均，但大部分降雨发生在8、9月份，GEP和Re分别为141和190gCm-2yr-1。 (7) 克氏针茅草原在2004、2005和2006年碳收支分别为：49、68和37 gCm-2yr-1。未来全球气候的变暖可能对克氏针茅草原的碳汇功能产生负面影响，降雨的季节不均匀分布可能加强这种影响。

玉米农田水热碳通量动态及其环境控制机理研究

陆地生态系统与大气之间的水热碳交换是物质、能量循环的关键过程，一直以来都为研究者们所关注。进入20 世纪以来，特别是随着人们对全球气候变暖的逐步认识，气候变化对水热碳交换过程的影响及其对气候变化的响应研究更加备受关注。本研究以2004~2006 年近三年的涡度相关系统连续观测数据为依托，分析了雨养玉米农田水热碳通量的动态及其影响因子。研究表明，玉米农田水热通量(WHF) 呈显著的单峰型日变化， 日最大值出现在正午12:00~13:00，WHF 变化同步。潜热通量(LE)的季节变化规律与日变化相似，冬季小夏季大，年最大值与最小值分别出现在7 月和1 月。显热通量(Hs) 季节变化也呈单峰型，但年最大值出现在5 月，这主要与降水以及作物生长有关。半小时尺度上，WHF 主要受辐射控制，而日峰值受辐射峰值以及植被生长的双重影响；日尺度上，只要有降水过程，Hs 就会随土壤水分的增大而减小，降水停止后逐渐恢复。而降水对LE 的影响受到可用能量(AE)的干扰，表现出复杂的变化趋势。总的来说，降水持续时间越长AE 越少，对LE 的抑制越大；季节尺度上，WHF 受热量与水分的双重制约。Hs 随着天气回暖后第一次较大降水过程的出现呈现明显下降，而LE 则呈现相反的变化趋势。随着雨季到来和作物的生长，Hs 在7 月出现低谷，而LE 呈现相反的趋势随着降水量的增加而增大；年际间WHF 的分布规律大体一致，但因气象条件等的差异，特别是降水的差异造成年际间WHF 略有不同。在不同水文年型下，水分因子的影响作用有显著差异，且WHF 对热量与水分条件变化的敏感程度也不相同。欠水年，水分因子的作用更显著，是制约WHF 变化的主要控制因子，WHF 对水分的变化更敏感；而丰水年，水分因子的影响减弱，热量的盈亏决定着WHF 变化的主要方向。在不同水文年型下，水热碳通量对水热条件的变化表现出不同的响应方式，为研究生态系统对气候变化的响应提供了参考。 净碳(C)吸收期，玉米农田净碳交换(NEE)呈显著的日变化，在日出以后由CO2 释放转变为CO2 吸收，12:30 左右达到一天中的吸收峰值，日落前出现相反的转换。而净C 释放期内，NEE 均为正值且无明显日变化。NEE 季节变化也呈单峰型二次曲线，在7 月下旬或8 月上旬达到年最大吸收率。根据NEE 的正负，一年分为三个阶段：两个C 排放期与一个C 吸收期。一般C 吸收期从6月开始到9 月结束，此前此后均为C 排放期。在半小时、日时间尺度上，光通量密度(PPFD)与NEE 有着相似的变化规律，是控制NEE 的主要因子；在日、季节尺度上，叶面积指数(LAI)和气孔导度(gs)是影响NEE 的主要生物因子，且gs 的影响程度随着发育期的变化而变化，而不同年份间LAI 对NEE 的影响没有显著的差异。几乎在所有时间步长上，土壤温度(Ts)均为生态系统呼吸(Re)的主要控制因子，时间尺度愈短，二者的相关性愈好。总的来说，在较短时间尺度上，高PPFD 与夏季低温将会促进C 的吸收，有利于C 累积。 玉米农田日最大净C 吸收速率(NEEmax, daily)以及吸收释放转换点(NEE=0)均受PPFD 控制。NEEmax, daily 出现时间与PPFDmax, daily 出现时间几乎完全一致，当PPFD 达到1 日内极大值时，净C 吸收也相应达到了日最大值。但NEEmax, daily的量值还受到其它因子的影响。当水分条件充足时，还将受到LAI、gs 等生物因子的控制。NEE 由正转为负的转换点也是由PPFD 决定。当PPFD 稳定大于PPFD*( PPFD*=100 μmol•m-2s -1)时，净C 吸收开始；当PPFD 稳定小于PPFD*时，净C 吸收由此结束。1 日内，PPFD 稳定通过PPFD*之间的时间间隔决定了日净C 吸收的时间长度。日净C 吸收的时间越长，吸收量也越大，且有明显的季节变化，7 月最长9 月最短。 按照热量水分状况将三年分组，分为I 组(水分状况相似，热量条件不同)与II 组(热量条件相似，水分状况不同)。 I 组年际间PPFD 波动是造成C 交换格局变化的关键原因。而II 组年际间C 交换格局不同是由降水量及其不同分布引起的土壤含水量(SWC)变化是造成。SWC 可以解释年际间NEE 变异的97%，而大气水汽压亏缺(VPD)可以解释30.7%；温度因子通过影响C 收支中的呼吸项，间接影响着生态系统的NEE，它可以解释年际间NEE 变异的73.9%，也是造成年际间C 交换格局不同的原因之一；另外，PPFD 和发育期早晚以及净C吸收期长度等也同样影响着C 交换格局的变化。综合两组情况来看，由水分条件年际变化引起的NEE 的波动大于能量年际变化引起的波动。总之，在较长时间尺度上，NEE 对SWC 变化比其对PPFD 变化更敏感，说明在半干旱地区土壤水分条件仍然是决定C 交换格局的主导因子。 NEE 与LE 呈线性相关，它们之间的相关性主要受温度和NEE 的控制，温度越高，二者的相关性越弱，而NEE 越大二者相关性越好。同时，作物蒸腾与土壤蒸发的比例也是影响NEE 与LE 之间关系的主要因素。蒸腾作用所占的比例越大，二者的线性关系越显著，而土壤蒸发比例越大，二者的相关性越弱。总的来说，NEE 与LE 之间的线性关系有明显的季节变化，生长季好于非生长季，夏天好于冬天。 总之，雨养玉米农田水热碳通量既具有其它农田生态系统共有的动态特征，也具有其特有特征。

辽河三角洲芦苇湿地生态系统水碳通量动态及其控制机制

全球变化背景下人类生存环境及社会经济的可持续发展要求，使得水循环和碳循环成为科学研究的关注点。湿地与森林、海洋并称为全球三大生态系统，与生态平衡、人类生存和经济社会可持续发展息息相关，特别是湿地的碳汇功能使得其在全球碳循环中具有重要作用。我国湿地面积占亚洲第一位，世界第四位，占世界湿地面积的11.9% 。但是，与森林、草地与农田等生态系统相比，湿地水碳循环控制机制研究的甚少，制约着湿地生态系统的水碳管理。 本论文基于2005~2007 年盘锦芦苇湿地生态系统野外观测站的涡度相关系统的水碳通量和气象环境因子的连续观测数据，结合芦苇湿地生态系统的生物学调查资料，较系统地分析了芦苇湿地生态系统水汽通量和碳通量的动态特征，探讨了不同时间尺度芦苇湿地生态系统水汽通量和碳通量的环境控制机制。主要结论如下： (1)芦苇湿地生态系统蒸散的日、季变化显著。2005~2007 年盘锦芦苇湿地生态系统的年蒸散量分别为432、480 和445 mm。非生长季(11 月~次年4 月)对全年蒸散量的贡献约13~16%，表明在湿地蒸散年总量的估算中不能忽略非生长季的贡献。 (2)关于动力作用和热力作用对芦苇湿地蒸散的贡献表明，能量是驱动芦苇湿地蒸散的重要因素，在小时至月尺度上均起着主导作用；时间尺度越长，能量因子对蒸散变异的解释率越大。仅温度就能解释蒸散月总量变异的95%左右。但是，随着时间尺度的降低，水分条件如饱和水汽压差、相对湿度，对芦苇湿地蒸散的作用逐渐显现。降雨和蒸散的变化虽然没有统计上的相关性，但短时段的降雨可能导致雨后蒸散增强，而持续多天的阴雨天气却能导致蒸散量连续下降。 (3)基于芦苇湿地生态系统作物系数(kc)具有显著日间变异的事实，发展了耦合气温、相对湿度和净辐射影响的芦苇湿地日作物系数模型，弥补了国际粮农组织建议的蒸发散估算模型FAO56 缺乏适宜湿地作物系数的不足。 (4)芦苇湿地生态系统呼吸呈单峰型季节变化，2005~2007 年生态系统呼吸的年总量分别为834、894 和872 g C m-2 yr-1，非生长季芦苇湿地的生态系统呼吸碳排放量为102~136 g C m-2 season-1，占全年生态系统呼吸总量的12~16%。这说明，非生长季湿地生态系统的碳排放通量不可忽视。温度是小时至月尺度的生态系统呼吸控制因子；同时，生物因素也对芦苇湿地生态系统呼吸有显著影响。生态系统呼吸对温度的响应呈指数函数关系，二者间的响应受土壤水分的影响。当表层土壤含水量(5 cm) 为20~25%时，芦苇湿地生态系统呼吸的潜力(Reco,10)最大。生态系统呼吸的日值与地上生物量、叶面积指数呈对数正相关，而与冠层高度呈显著二次曲线关系。生态系统呼吸的年际差异并不是由温度变化引起，而与植被生长状况密切相关。 (5)芦苇湿地生态系统的净碳交换季节变化明显，变化范围在-12.9~4.2 g C m-2 day-1 之间。一般在5~9 月表现为大气CO2 的汇，其余月份为碳源。其中，净碳吸收最大的月份为6、7 月，而净碳排放最大的月份为4、10 月。2005~2007 年的年碳收支分别为-55、-230 和-53 g C m-2 yr-1，呈碳汇。 (6)不同时间尺度的净碳交换控制因子不同。小时尺度上，影响芦苇湿地生态系统净碳交换的环境因子主要是光合有效辐射(PAR) 。芦苇湿地生态系统光合作用的光响应参数(α、Amax 和Reco)随温度指数上升，而与叶面积指数呈线性正相关。光响应参数的这种显著季节波动表明，在生态系统碳循环模型中不应该将生态系统的光合作用参数视为常数，应该考虑采用光响应参数与环境和生物因子间的定量关系来反映光合作用光响应参数动态。日尺度上，温度是芦苇湿地碳交换的主要控制因子，湿地净碳交换在15℃左右由正值变为负值，芦苇湿地由碳源变为碳汇。除温度外，饱和水汽压差对日尺度净碳交换波动也有影响，二者呈二次曲线关系(U 型)，当饱和水汽压差在0.8 kPa 附近时，芦苇湿地净碳吸收达到最大。月尺度上，影响芦苇湿地净碳交换的主要环境因子依然是温度，二者间表现出“非对称响应”特征。 (7)对芦苇湿地碳交换各组分间的关系分析表明，芦苇湿地生态系统呼吸和净碳交换均受总光合生产力的显著影响，即通过光合作用产物来源控制。

长白山红松针阔混交林CO_2通量的日变化与季节变化

Diurnal and seasonal variation of CO_2 flux above the Korean Pine and broad_leaved mixed forest in Changbai Mountain were expounded according to the measurements by eddy covariance technique. The results showed that the diurnal variation during growing season was closely correlated with photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The forest assimilated the CO_2 in daytime and released in night. The maximum uptake occurred about 9 o'clock of local time in clear day. Assimilation was synchronous to PAR in cloudy day. The night respiration increased with increasing of shallow soil temperature. The CO_2 flux also had obviously seasonal variation that was mainly controlled by temperature. Relationship between monthly net exchange of CO_2 and monthly mean air temperature fit cubic equation. Remarkable uptake occurred in blooming growing season,May to August,and weak respiration occurred in dormant season,October to March,and relatively big release happed in October. Assimilation and respiration were nearly balanced during the transition of growing and dormant seasons. The annual carbon uptake of the ecosystem was-184 gC·m -2 .

Validating MODIS-derived land surface evapotranspiration with in situ measurements at two AmeriFlux sites in a semiarid region

Reducing uncertainties in the estimation of land surface evapotranspiration (ET) from remote-sensing data is essential to better understand earth-atmosphere interactions. This paper demonstrates the applicability of temperature-vegetation index triangle (T-s-VI) method in estimating regional ET and evaporative fraction (EF, defined as the ratio of latent heat flux to surface available energy) from MODIS/Terra and MODIS/Aqua products in a semiarid region. We have compared the satellite-based estimates of ET and EF with eddy covariance measurements made over 4 years at two semiarid grassland sites: Audubon Ranch (AR) and Kendall Grassland (KG). The lack of closure in the eddy covariance measured surface energy components is shown to be more serious at MODIS/Aqua overpass time than that at MODIS/Terra overpass time for both AR and KG sites. The T-s-VI-derived EF could reproduce in situ EF reasonably well with BIAS and root-mean-square difference (RMSD) of less than 0.07 and 0.13, respectively. Surface net radiation has been shown to be systematically overestimated by as large as about 60 W/m(2). Satisfactory validation results of the T-s-VI-derived sensible and latent heat fluxes have been obtained with RMSD within 54 W/m(2). The simplicity and yet easy use of the T-s-VI triangle method show a great potential in estimating regional ET with highly acceptable accuracy that is of critical significance in better understanding water and energy budgets on the Earth. Nevertheless, more validation work should be carried out over various climatic regions and under other different land use/land cover conditions in the future.

Ship-board measurements and estimations of air-sea fluxes in the western tropical Pacific during TOGA COARE

Direct air-sea flux measurements were made on RN Kexue #1 at 40 degrees S, 156 degrees E during the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Coupled Ocean-Atmospheric Response Experiment (COARE) Intensive Observation Period (IOP). An array of six accelerometers was used to measure the motion of the anchored ship, and a sonic anemometer and Lyman-alpha hygrometer were used to measure the turbulent wind vector and specific humidity. The contamination of the turbulent wind components by ship motion was largely removed by an improvement of a procedure due to Shao based on the acceleration signals. The scheme of the wind correction for ship motion is briefly outlined. Results are presented from data for the best wind direction relative to the ship to minimize flow distortion effects. Both the time series and the power spectra of the sonic-measured wind components show swell-induced ship motion contamination, which is largely removed by the accelerometer correction scheme, There was less contamination in the longitudinal wind component than in the vertical and transverse components. The spectral characteristics of the surface-layer turbulence properties are compared with those from previous land and ocean results, Momentum and latent heat fluxes were calculated by eddy correlation and compared to those estimated by the inertial dissipation method and the TOGA COARE bulk formula. The estimations of wind stress determined by eddy correlation are smaller than those from the TOGA COARE bulk formula, especially for higher wind speeds, while those from the bulk formula and inertial dissipation technique are generally in agreement. The estimations of latent heal flux from the three different methods are in reasonable agreement. The effect of the correction for ship motion on latent heat fluxes is not as large as on momentum fluxes.

Surface energy partitioning in alpine swamp meadow in the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau

Based on surface energy flux data measured by eddy covariance methods from China Flux in alpine swamp meadow of the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau in 2005, the daily and seasonal dynamic of surface energy fluxes and their partitioning, as well as abiotic factors effects were analyzed. The results suggested that LE （Latent heat flux） was the largest consumer of the incoming energy. Rn （Net radiation flux） and LE showed clear seasonal variations in sharp hump and up to their maximums in August and July, respectively. H （Sensible heat flux） increased to its peak in August whereafter declined slowly. Precipitation could reduce the components of surface energy. As to Rn and LE, their correlations with abiotic factors were evident while it was not significant in H. Average EBR （Energy balance ratio） was 50.7 %, which was much larger in growing season than non-growing season.