三叶木通花发育相关基因的结构、功能和进化研究

花是被子植物最关键的创新（innovation）性状。在被子植物的不同类群中，其形态多种多样，尤其以基部真双子叶植物的花形态最为丰富。大量的系统发育分析表明，在核心真双子叶植物起源之前，几个与花发育相关的MADS-box基因亚家族均发生了大尺度的基因重复事件。因此，在被子植物的不同物种中，花发育相关基因的组成并不相同，并且它们经历了不同的进化历史，这意味着这些基因可能以不同的方式调控花的发育。基部真双子叶植物，作为基部被子植物和核心真双子叶植物之间的过渡类群，对于我们理解被子植物花的进化，揭示核心真双子叶植物花的起源以及基部真双子叶植物花多样性分化的分子机制非常重要。本文以基部真双子叶植物三叶木通为研究材料，着重进行了以下研究工作： 1. 花器官发生过程的观察。三叶木通的花为雌雄同序的单性花。而且，根据成熟花的形态，三叶木通的雌花和雄花都只有一轮花被器官，即三个花瓣状的萼片。扫描电镜的观察结果表明：1）在花器官的发生和发育过程中，在萼片和雄蕊原基之间，确实没有花瓣原基或另一轮萼片原基发生。2）雌花和雄花都是以两性花的方式发生发育的。3）单性花是由于在花发育的最后阶段，雌花中雄蕊或者雄花中心皮的退化而产生的。 2. 花发育相关基因的克隆。应用5’/3’ RACE的方法，我们从三叶木通不同发育阶段的混合花芽中共分离到九个与花发育相关的MADS-box基因： AktFL1、AktFL2、AktAP3_1、AktAP3_2、AktAP3_3、AktPI、AktAG1、AktAG2和AktSEP3。 3. A类MADS-box基因的进化。由于A类基因在进化过程中序列结构的改变，再加上取样的限制，使得A类基因间的进化历史一直不能被很好的理解。因此，本文对A类基因的研究从构建该基因亚家族的系统发育树开始。主要结果如下：1）通过扩大在基部真双子叶植物和被子植物其它重要类群的取样，我们的系统发育树基本上反映了现存被子植物的系统发育关系。2）核心真双子叶植物的A类基因由三个分支组成：euFUL、euAP1和AGL79，它们是通过发生在核心真双子叶植物起源之前的两次几乎同时的基因重复事件产生的。3）在基部真双子叶植物中，山龙眼目、毛茛目和黄杨科的A类基因各形成一支。而且，在这些类群内，发生了多次小尺度的独立的基因重复事件。4）来自单子叶植物的FUL-like基因明显地构成一个单系，并且包括三个分支：OsAMDS14、OsMADS15和OsMADS18。它们是由于两次不连续的基因重复事件产生的。5）不同类型的A类基因产物在C末端拥有不同的保守基元。6）从基因组结构上看，所有的A类基因都拥有八个外显子和七个内含子。7）通过对三叶木通中两个FUL-like型基因（AktFL1和AktFL2）表达式样的观察，我们发现它们在叶原基和发育早期的花原基以及发育着的花器官中都有表达。此外，A类基因表达式样的进化分析结果表明被子植物中该类基因的祖先可能具有广泛的功能，既在营养器官中表达又在生殖器官中表达 。 4. B类基因表达式样的保守性和多样性。通过对B类基因的系统发育和表达式样分析，得到以下结果：1）三叶木通中的三个paleoAP3基因是通过两次基因重复事件产生的。2）在木通科或木通属内，PI型基因并没有发生基因重复事件。3）RT-PCR结果表明，AktAP3_1在雌花中的表达量比雄花中高，而AktAP3_2则在雄花中的表达量比雌花中高。AktAP3_3和AktPI在雌花和雄花中的表达水平相似。4）原位杂交分析显示这些基因在发育着的雄蕊和心皮中表达。此外，AktAP3_3和AktPI还在萼片中表达，可能参与花瓣状萼片的发育。 5. 三叶木通C/D和E类基因的序列结构和表达分析。通过序列结构分析，我们发现，与其它被子植物AG同源基因编码的MADS-domain蛋白一样，AktAG1和AktAG2在MADS结构域的N末端都拥有一段氨基酸序列的延伸，AktAG1为20个氨基酸;AktAG2为7个氨基酸。原位杂交分析表明AktAG1和AktAG2主要在发育着的雄蕊和心皮中表达，说明它们具有决定生殖器官发育这一保守的功能。 AktSEP3属于AGL9型的E类基因。该基因在所有花器官中都有表达，说明和其它被子植物的E类基因一样，AktSEP3在三叶木通中对于所有花器官的发育都是必需的。 6. 各类MADS-domain蛋白间的相互作用。在前面工作的基础上，我们首次对三叶木通中上述MADS-domain蛋白间的作用方式进行了研究。酵母双杂交结果表明：1）AktSEP3的C末端具有转录激活功能。2）三个AktAP3蛋白与AktPI蛋白都能够形成异源二聚体，但是它们之间的作用能力并不相同。3）AktSEP3蛋白可以与AktFL1、AktPI、AktAG1和AktAG2形成异源二聚体，充分体现了E类基因产物作用式样的保守性。4）AktFL1与AktPI、AktSEP3和AktAG2也能形成异源二聚体，这与核心真双子叶植物的euFUL型蛋白在作用式样上是非常相似的。 综合以上结果，我们探讨了三叶木通花发育的分子机制。在三叶木通的三轮花器官中，与拟南芥等模式植物相似的是：E类（AktSEP3）基因在每一轮花器官中都起作用;此外，A类（AktFL1）和B类（AktAP3_3和AktPI）基因在花瓣状的萼片中有不同程度的表达，类似于拟南芥的第二轮;B类（AktAP3_1、AktAP3_2、AktAP3_3和AktPI）和C/D类（AktAG1和AktAG2）基因在雄蕊的发育过程中起作用;C/D类（AktAG1和AktAG2）基因对心皮的发育起作用。与拟 南芥等模式植物不同的是：1）虽然原位杂交分析表明，AktFL1、AktAP3_3、AktPI和AktSEP3都在花瓣状的萼片中有 不同程度的表达，但是它们的蛋白质产物AktFL1与AktSEP3和AktAP3_3与AktPI都只能形成较弱的异源二聚体。而 且，根据我们的研究结果，在三叶木通中没有找到euAP1型的A类基因，只有两个FUL-like型的A类基因。它们的功能 与核心真双子叶植物中的euFUL型基因相似。因此，AktFL1很可能与其它调控因子共同作用负责花分生组织的形成;AktFL1/AktAG2则可能在花发育的后期起作用。那么，三叶木通花瓣状萼片的发育是否需要AktFL1/AktSEP3和 AktAP3_3/AktPI的参与，还是另有其它转录因子的参与，仍然需要更深入的研究。2）虽然在三叶木通中，雄蕊的发 育同样需要B、C/D和E类基因的参与，但是由于小尺度的基因重复事件，在该物种中只拥有三个paleoAP3型基因，而没有euAP3型基因。而且，由于复制拷贝间的亚功能化，AktAP3_1/AktPI主要参与雌花的发育过程;而AktAP3_2/AktPI主要参与雄花的发育过程。

水稻中一个编码富含脯氨酸蛋白基因家族的表达和功能研究

OsPRP1是水稻中特有的，编码一类富含脯氨酸蛋白（proline-rich protein, PRP）的基因家族，该家族有4个成员。在GenBank中，仅找到了一个结构相对接近的玉米PRP蛋白，但是对它的研究仅限于序列上的某些描述，而且在序列上，仍然与这4个OsPRP1蛋白有明显的差别。OsPRP1蛋白明显有别于前人（1999）所描述的4类PRP蛋白。它们是植物中一类新的小分子量的PRP蛋白，仅有一个保守结构域而属于DUF1210蛋白超家族的成员。 四个OsPRP1基因在基因组中紧密串联排列，而且编码区高度保守，基因结构也高度一致，证明它们来源于同一个祖先基因，是通过基因复制的方式产生的。PAML分析也证明它们在进化时间上的相互距离并不远。而在进化过程中由于执行生理功能上的某种重要性，在编码区表现出很的保守性，因而很难在RNA水平和蛋白水平上研究四个OsPRP1基因的表达差异。但是它们在表达调节区（如启动子区）显示出明显的差异。在克隆启动子的基础上，用GUS报告基因的策略，没有检测到它们在拟南芥中的表达活性，说明它们具有一定的种属特异性。而在水稻中，这四个基因的表达显示出了明显的时序和空间差异，既表现出在组织器官及其发育阶段上的特异性和变化，又在一定程度上表现出交叉，出现了功能上的分化和重叠。根据启动子区上的顺式元件，检测了这些基因对6种植物生长调节物质和3种非生物胁迫因子的应答反应，证明它们的表达调节也表现出显著的差异和分化。因此，四个基因的进化出现了功能退化、亚功能化和产生新功能等多种命运，比理论模型预期的要复杂得多，可能在执行生理功能和对环境反应上具有各自的生物学意义。 植物细胞壁是多种碳水化合物和蛋白质相互交织在一起的亲水性网络。在保护和支撑原生质、细胞通信、细胞分化、细胞对生物的和非生物胁迫的抗性等方面发挥着重要作用。目前已知的大多数植物PRP蛋白被描述成细胞壁结构性蛋白。OsPRP1基因家族编码的蛋白质都有一个N-端信号肽，暗示它们可能是一类分泌蛋白。我们用OsPRP1.1::GFP融合蛋白进行了亚细胞定位，证明了OsPRP1蛋白的确也是细胞壁相关蛋白。用原核表达体系表达了GST-融合蛋白，制备抗体，通过免疫印迹证明这些蛋白不溶于温和的提取缓冲溶液中，但可以被高盐和强碱溶液溶解，且分子量增加了三倍。证明在体内可能出现修饰、与细胞壁其它组分相交联的现象。 在这四个基因中，只有OsPRP1.2能够在水稻根中特异表达。根的原位杂交实验证明，OsPRP1在分化成熟程度低的细胞中大量表达，而在分化成熟程度高的细胞中几乎不表达。GUS染色的结果同样发现，基因在维管柱特别是中柱鞘附近的薄壁细胞的表达比别的细胞要强得多，而且在根的生长方向上表现出与发育相关的表达特征。说明OsPRP1基因可能参与了这些细胞的分化、发育过程。而基因表达的组织器官特异性的差异和对不同刺激因素的不同反应意味着它们可能参与了多种生理过程。为此构建了一个RNAi的表达载体，转化水稻，Southern杂交实验得到9个单位点插入的T2代独立株系，其中有6个株系与野生型对照相比，主根的早期伸长受到显著抑制，主根的一级侧根地数量减少，根尖分生区的细胞在轴向上的伸长受到了抑制。结合表达定位和原位杂交的结果，我们对它们在植物生长发育中的功能进行了深入探讨。

太行花MADS-box基因克隆、表达模式及功能分析

基因的重复（duplication）及其功能的多样性（diversification）为生物体新的形态进化提供了原材料。重复的基因通过表达方式和（或）编码序列的改变而导致其亚功能化（subfunctionalization）和（或）新功能化（neofunctionalization），从而使这些重复基因有可能保留在生物体中，增添生物的遗传稳定性（robustness）和多样性。MADS-box基因在植物（特别是在被子植物）的进化过程中发生了大量的基因重复事件而形成一个多基因家族。MADS-box基因家族的不同成员在植物生长发育过程中起着非常重要的作用，在调控开花时间、决定花分生组织和花器官特征，以及调控根、叶、胚珠及果实的发育中起着广泛的作用。开展对MADS-box基因家族成员的序列结构、表达模式及编码蛋白的功能研究可以为这些同源基因在生物体中的可能命运提供很好的实验依据。本研究以我国特有的蔷薇科物种太行花做实验材料，通过3’ RACE和5’ RACE方法从太行花中克隆了7个MADS-box家族的基因。序列和系统进化树分析表明这7个基因分别与拟南芥的MADS-box基因AG、SHP（SHP1/2）、PI、AP1、FUL和SEP1以及与矮牵牛MADS-box基因PhTM6具有很高的同源性并聚为一支，从而将这7个MADS-box基因分别命名为TrAG（Taihangia rupestris AG）、TrSHP（Taihangia rupestris SHP）、TrPI（Taihangia rupestris PI）、TrAP1（Taihangia rupestris AP1）、TrFUL（Taihangia rupestris FUL）、TrSEP1（Taihangia rupestris SEP1）和TrTM6（Taihangia rupestris PhTM6）。针对克隆的这些基因，具体进行了以下几方面的研究： 第一，对TrAG和TrSHP两个MADS-box基因进行了研究，它们分别属于AG亚家族中旁系同源进化系euAG和PLE进化系的成员。通过原位杂交的方法分析了旁系同源基因TrAG和TrSHP的表达方式是否发生了分化;构建组成型表达载体转化野生型拟南芥，分析了TrAG和TrSHP的编码蛋白的功能是否发生了改变;并进一步通过酵母双杂交的方法比较了TrAG和TrSHP的相互作用方式是否发生了分化。原位杂交分析表明，TrAG和TrSHP主要在雄蕊、心皮和胚珠中表达。在花发育过程中，TrAG起始表达比TrSHP早，在随后将形成雄蕊和心皮原基的分生组织区域以及雄蕊原基中表达;然而直到雄蕊原基出现前未检测到TrSHP的表达。在雄蕊原基形成之后，TrAG和TrSHP在发育的雄蕊、随后将产生心皮原基的分生组织区域以及心皮原基中表达。在花发育的晚期，TrAG在发育的柱头、花柱以及胚珠中均有表达，而TrSHP仅在胚珠中表达。35S::TrAG和35S::TrSHP转基因拟南芥植株表现出相似的表型，包括开花提前;莲座叶和茎生叶向腹卷曲、变小;花芽在时期13前即开放，萼片包裹不住花芽;萼片和花瓣分别被同源异型转化为心皮化和雄蕊化器官，并在萼片向腹面产生异位的胚珠;在茎生叶上产生柱头化的乳突和胚珠;子房弯曲;果实提前沿着开裂区裂开，暴露出胚珠。此外，也观察到35S::TrAG和35S::TrSHP转基因拟南芥植株的一些表型差异，35S::TrAG转基因拟南芥植株花芽呈暗绿色，而35S::TrSHP转基因拟南芥植株花芽呈黄绿色;不同与35S::TrAG转基因植株表型的是，35S::TrSHP转基因拟南芥植株花被脱落受到了抑制，偶尔可以观察到花丝基部融合，果实变短、育性降低。酵母双杂交分析表明TrAG可以与TrSEP3相互作用，而TrSHP不能与TrSEP3形成异源二聚体。以上研究结果表明做为旁系同源基因，TrAG和TrSHP在表达方式上发生了改变，在蛋白编码序列上保持了其祖先的功能，但是编码序列的一些差异还是导致它们之间生化作用方式的不同和一定程度上的亚功能化。基于以上研究结果并结合先前报道的在拟南芥、金鱼草和矮牵牛等物种中旁系同源基因的表达和功能数据，我们提出在不同物种中旁系同源基因在进化过程中维持部分功能冗余（redundant），但是也通过改变表达方式、编码蛋白的功能及蛋白相互作用方式呈现出不同形式的亚功能化和（或）新功能化。 第二，对TrPI基因的功能也进行了初步研究，它属于AP3/PI亚家族PI-like进化系的成员。原位杂交结果表明，TrPI主要在花瓣、雄蕊和胚珠中表达。显示出TrPI与拟南芥同源基因PI保守的表达模式。35S::TrPI转基因拟南芥植株莲座叶发生延迟、变小、并且第一至第三片莲座叶呈白色针状;莲座叶和茎生叶并不像野生型呈有规则的螺旋状排列;花序茎基部、中间或顶端发生2-3个分支;在茎生叶的叶腋内的花序抽出时间明显晚于野生型，并且很小甚至不能完全抽出而藏在叶腋内。低温条件下转基因植株莲座叶的表型更加明显，表现为莲座叶变为针状，无叶片，仅有叶柄结构。这明显不同于35S::PI转基因拟南芥植株的表型。此外，酵母双杂交分析表明TrPI自身可以形成同源二聚体。这种相互作用方式也不同与拟南芥中PI的相互作用方式。以上研究结果表明，TrPI可能与拟南芥PI具有保守的表达模式但编码的蛋白可能获得了新的功能。 第三，构建了一个AP1-like基因（TrAP1）的过量表达载体，转化野生型拟南芥植株，通过反向遗传学分析了TrAP1的功能。35S::TrAP1转基因拟南芥植株开花提前;花序以两朵花终止，形成terminal flower的表型;偶尔可以观察到雄蕊转化为花瓣化的器官;莲座叶呈黄绿色并且其边缘呈锯齿状。酵母双杂交分析表明TrAP1蛋白自身可以形成同源二聚体。这些结果表明TrAP1可能与拟南芥同源基因AP1具有保守的功能。

The mitochondrial genome organization of the rice frog, Fejervarya limnocharis (Amphibia : Anura): a new gene order in the vertebrate mtDNA

The mitochondrial DNA of the rice frog, Fejervarya limnocharis (Amphibia, Anura), was obtained using long-and-accurate polymerase chain reaction (LA-PCR) combining with subcloning method. The complete nucleotide sequence (17,717 bp) of mitochondrial genome was determined subsequently. This mitochondrial genome is characterized by four distinctive features: the translocation of ND5 gene, a cluster of rearranged tRNA genes (tRNA(Thr), tRNA(Pro), tRNA(Leu) ((CUN))) a tandem duplication of tRNA(Mer) gene, and eight large 89-bp tandem repeats in the control region, as well as three short noncoding regions containing two repeated motifs existing in the gene cluster of ND5/tRNA(Thr)/tRNA(Pro)/tRNA(Leu)/tRNA(Phe). The tandem duplication of gene regions followed by deletions of supernumerary genes can be invoked to explain the shuffling of tRNAM(Met) and a cluster of tRNA and ND5 genes, as observed in this study. Both ND5 gene translocation and tandem duplication of tRNA(Met) were first observed in the vertebrate mitochondrial genomes. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Diversity and evolution of MicroRNA gene clusters

microRNA (miRNA) gene clusters are a group of miRNA genes clustered within a proximal distance on a chromosome. Although a large number of miRNA clusters have been uncovered in animal and plant genomes, the functional consequences of this arrangement are

Adaptive evolution of a duplicated pancreatic ribonuclease gene in a leaf-eating monkey

Although the complete genome sequences of over 50 representative species have revealed the many duplicated genes in all three domains of life(1-4), the roles of gene duplication in organismal adaptation and biodiversity are poorly understood. In addition,

Pseudogenization of the tumor-growth promoter angiogenin in a leaf-eating monkey

Physiological functions of human genes may be studied by gene-knockout experiments in model organisms such as the mouse. This strategy relies on the existence of one-to-one gene orthology between the human and mouse. When lineage-specific gene duplication occurs and paralogous genes share a certain degree of functional redundancy, knockout mice may not provide accurate functional information on human genes. Angiogenin is a small protein that stimulates blood-vessel growth and promotes tumor development. Humans and related primates only have one angiogenin gene, while mice have three paralogous genes. This makes it difficult to generate angiogenin-knockout mice and even more difficult to interpret the genotype-phenotype relation from such animals should they be generated. We here show that in the douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus), an Asian leaf-eating colobine monkey, the single-copy angiogenin gene has a one-nucleotide deletion in the sixth codon of the mature peptide, generating a premature stop codon. This nucleotide deletion is found in five unrelated individuals sequenced, and therefore is likely to have been fixed in the species. Five colobine species that are closely related to the douc langur have intact angiogenin genes, suggesting that the pseudogenization event was recent and unique to the douc langur lineage. This natural knockout experiment suggests that primate angiogenin is dispensable even in the wild. Further physiological studies of douc largurs may offer additional information on the role of this cancer-related gene in normal physiology of primates, including humans. Our findings also provide a strong case for the importance of evolutionary analysis in biomedical studies of gene functions. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Adaptive diversification of bitter taste receptor genes in mammalian evolution

The diversity and evolution of bitter taste perception in mammals is not well understood. Recent discoveries of bitter taste receptor (T2R) genes provide an opportunity for a genetic approach to this question. We here report the identification of 10 and 30 putative T2R genes from the draft human and mouse genome sequences, respectively, in addition to the 23 and 6 previously known T2R genes from the two species. A phylogenetic analysis of the T2R genes suggests that they can be classified into three main groups, which are designated A, B, and C. Interestingly, while the one-to-one gene orthology between the human and mouse is common to group B and C genes, group A genes show a pattern of species- or lineage-specific duplication. It is possible that group B and C genes are necessary for detecting bitter tastants common to both humans and mice, whereas group A genes are used for species-specific bitter tastants. The analysis also reveals that phylogenetically closely related T2R genes are close in their chromosomal locations, demonstrating tandem gene duplication as the primary source of new T2Rs. For closely related paralogous genes, a rate of nonsynonymous nucleotide substitution significantly higher than the rate of synonymous substitution was observed in the extracellular regions of T2Rs, which are presumably involved in tastant-binding. This suggests the role of positive selection in the diversification of newly duplicated T2R genes. Because many natural poisonous substances are bitter, we conjecture that the mammalian T2R genes are under diversifying selection for the ability to recognize a diverse array of poisons that the organisms may encounter in exploring new habitats and diets.

Molecular evolution of growth hormone gene family in old world monkeys and hominoids

Growth hormone is a classic molecule in the study of the molecular clock hypothesis as it exhibits a relatively constant rate of evolution in most mammalian orders except primates and artiodactyls, where dramatically enhanced rate of evolution (25-50-fold) has been reported. The rapid evolution of primate growth hormone occurred after the divergence of tarsiers and simians, but before the separation of old world monkeys (OWM) from new world monkeys (NWM). Interestingly, this event of rapid sequence evolution coincided with multiple duplications of the growth hormone gene, suggesting gene duplication as a possible cause of the accelerated sequence evolution. Here we determined 21 different GH-like sequences from four species of OWM and hominoids. Combining with published sequences from OWM and hominoids, our analysis demonstrates that multiple gene duplications and several gene conversion events both occurred in the evolutionary history of this gene family in OWM/hominoids. The episode of recent duplications of CSH-like genes in gibbon is accompanied with rapid sequence evolution likely resulting from relaxation of purifying selection. GHN genes in both hominoids and OWM are under strong purifying selection. In contrast, CSH genes in both lineages are probably not. GHV genes in OWM and hominoids evolved at different evolutionary rates and underwent different selective constraints. Our results disclosed the complex history of the primate growth hormone gene family and raised intriguing questions on the consequences of these evolutionary events. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The unusual adaptive expansion of pancreatic ribonuclease gene in carnivora

Pancreatic ribonuclease (RNASE1) is a digestive enzyme that has been recognized to be one of the most attractive model systems for molecular evolutionary studies. The contribution of RNASE1 gene duplication to the functional adaptation of digestive physio

Adaptive Evolution of Digestive RNASE1 Genes in Leaf-Eating Monkeys Revisited: New Insights from Ten Additional Colobines

Pancreatic RNase genes implicated in the adaptation of the colobine monkeys to leaf eating have long intrigued evolutionary biologists since the identification of a duplicated RNASE1 gene with enhanced digestive efficiencies in Pygathrix nemaeus. The recent emergence of two contrasting hypotheses, that is, independent duplication and one-duplication event hypotheses, make it into focus again. Current understanding of Colobine RNASE1 gene evolution of colobine monkeys largely depends on the analyses of few colobine species. The present study with more intensive taxonomic and character sampling not only provides a clearer picture of Colobine RNASE1 gene evolution but also allows to have a more thorough understanding about the molecular basis underlying the adaptation of Colobinae to the unique leaf-feeding lifestyle. The present broader and detailed phylogenetic analyses yielded two important findings: 1) All trees based on the analyses of coding, noncoding, and both regions provided consistent evidence, indicating RNASE1 duplication occurred after Asian and African colobines speciation, that is, independent duplication hypothesis; 2) No obvious evidence of gene conversion in RNASE1 gene was found, favoring independent evolution of Colobine RNASE1 gene duplicates. The conclusion drawn from previous studies that gene conversion has played a significant role in the evolution of Colobine RNASE1 was not supported. Our selective constraint analyses also provided interesting insights, with significant evidence of positive selection detected on ancestor lineages leading to duplicated gene copies. The identification of a handful of new adaptive sites and amino acid changes that have not been characterized previously also provide a necessary foundation for further experimental investigations of RNASE1 functional evolution in Colobinae.

Evolution of phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase by domain losing

The gene duplication, fusion and horizontal transfer are the frequent events during evolution of many proteins, including the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARSs). However, in this work, it was shown that the main event during evolution of phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase (PheRS) is a domain loss, and the function/activity of PheRS is not affected by domain losing. Generally, the size of genome and number of genes are increased during evolution from bacteria to eukaryote, but the interesting thing is that the type and number of PheRS domains in eukaryotae are obviously less than those in bacteria. The evolution of PheRS by domain losing seems to be related to the functional evolution of some AARSs from the multiple specificities to the single specificity.

The Genomes of Oryza sativa: A history of duplications

We report improved whole-genome shotgun sequences for the genomes of indica and japonica rice, both with multimegabase contiguity, or almost 1,000-fold improvement over the drafts of 2002. Tested against a nonredundant collection of 19,079 full-length cDNAs, 97.7% of the genes are aligned, without fragmentation, to the mapped superscaffolds of one or the other genome. We introduce a gene identification procedure for plants that does not rely on similarity to known genes to remove erroneous predictions resulting from transposable elements. Using the available EST data to adjust for residual errors in the predictions, the estimated gene count is at least 38,000 - 40,000. Only 2% - 3% of the genes are unique to any one subspecies, comparable to the amount of sequence that might still be missing. Despite this lack of variation in gene content, there is enormous variation in the intergenic regions. At least a quarter of the two sequences could not be aligned, and where they could be aligned, single nucleotide polymorphism ( SNP) rates varied from as little as 3.0 SNP/kb in the coding regions to 27.6 SNP/kb in the transposable elements. A more inclusive new approach for analyzing duplication history is introduced here. It reveals an ancient whole-genome duplication, a recent segmental duplication on Chromosomes 11 and 12, and massive ongoing individual gene duplications. We find 18 distinct pairs of duplicated segments that cover 65.7% of the genome; 17 of these pairs date back to a common time before the divergence of the grasses. More important, ongoing individual gene duplications provide a never-ending source of raw material for gene genesis and are major contributors to the differences between members of the grass family.

Rapid evolution in a pair of recent duplicate segments of rice

Gene duplication has been considered the most important way of generating genetic novelties. The subsequent evolution right after gene duplication is critical for new function to occur. Here we analyzed the evolutionary pattern for a recently duplicated s

Fish-Specific Duplicated dmrt2b Contributes to a Divergent Function through Hedgehog Pathway and Maintains Left-Right Asymmetry Establishment Function

Gene duplication is thought to provide raw material for functional divergence and innovation. Fish-specific dmrt2b has been identified as a duplicated gene of the dmrt2a/terra in fish genomes, but its function has remained unclear. Here we reveal that Dmrt2b knockdown zebrafish embryos display a downward tail curvature and have U-shaped somites. Then, we demonstrate that Dmrt2b contributes to a divergent function in somitogenesis through Hedgehog pathway, because Dmrt2b knockdown reduces target gene expression of Hedgehog signaling, and also impairs slow muscle development and neural tube patterning through Hedgehog signaling. Moreover, the Dmrt2b morphants display defects in heart and visceral organ asymmetry, and, some lateral-plate mesoderm (LPM) markers expressed in left side are randomized. Together, these data indicate that fish-specific duplicated dmrt2b contributes to a divergent function in somitogenesis through Hedgehog pathway and maintains the common function for left-right asymmetry establishment.