Feeding behaviour of yaks on spring, transitional, summer and winter pasture in the alpine region of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Of the present estimated world population of 14.2 million yaks, approximately 13.3 million occur within Chinese territories (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003). Although there is an extensive bibliography covering the species, few studies have been conducted in the area of foraging behaviour. The present study was conducted at pasture during the spring, transitional, summer and winter seasons to determine the daily temporal patterns of grazing and ruminating behaviour by yaks. During each study period, two 24 h recordings were undertaken with each of six mature dairy yaks. One study period was conducted on each of the transitional, summer and winter pastures, whereas, due to the considerable changes occurring in the morphology of the spring pasture, three separate studies were completed during March, April and May. During the second of these studies (April), the effect of level of concentrate supplementation on grazing and ruminating behaviour was also examined. Behaviour recordings were made using solid-state behaviour recorders. Short-term intake rates (IR, g min(-1)) were calculated by weighing yaks before and after approximately 1 h of grazing, retaining the faeces and urine excreted and applying a correction for insensible weight loss. Yaks spent less time grazing during the dry season (the early period on the spring pasture) compared with the later green swards (the later period on the spring pasture, the transitional pasture and the summer pasture) (P < 0.05). When the forage quality improved, but there was still insufficient mass (the later period on the spring pasture), the yaks extended their grazing time at the expense of other activities. During the early periods on the spring pasture, the short-term IR by yaks was up to 53 g DM min(-1), significantly higher than at other times (P < 0.05). The level of concentrate offered had little or no effect on grazing or ruminating time. The total eating time of the yaks offered 0.5 or 1.0 kg concentrate was 2.9 and 4.5 h day(-1) respectively, significantly lower than unsupplemented yaks (6.8 h) (P < 0.05). In general, yaks can regulate their foraging behaviour according to the changes of sward conditions in order to achieve optimal grazing strategies. (C) 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Behavioural responses by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry or replacement heifers), when grazing natural pasture in the spring (dry and germinating) season on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Using heterogeneous vegetation in alpine grassland through grazing is a necessary component of deintensification of livestock systems and conservation of natural environments. However, better understanding of the dynamics of animal feeding behaviour would improve pasture and livestock grazing managements, particularly in the early part of the spring season when forage is scarce. The changes in behaviour may improve the use of poor pastures. Then, enhancing management practices may conserve pasture and improve animal productivity. Grazing behaviour over 24 In periods by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry and replacement heifers) was recorded in the early, dry and later, germinating period of the spring season. Under conditions of inadequate forage, the physiological state of yaks was not the primary factor affecting their grazing and ruminating behaviour. Forage and sward state affected yaks' grazing and ruminating behaviour to a greater extent. Generally, yaks had higher intake and spent more time grazing and ruminating during the later part of the spring season, following germination of forage, than during the earlier dry part of the season. However, the live weight of yaks was less during pasture germination than during the early dry part of the season because the herbage mass is low, and the yaks have to expend much energy to seek feed at this particular time. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

内蒙古农牧交错区典型草地和农田生态系统碳通量的研究

涡度相关技术是唯一能直接测定大气与植被间CO2通量的标准方法。随着全球变化研究的深入，人类活动干扰下陆地生态系统碳通量研究越来越受到关注，对草地生态系统的研究更是备受关注。本研究选择位于内蒙古典型的农牧交错区——多伦县的典型克氏针茅草地和被开垦的农田为研究对象，利用涡度相关技术，结合各环境因子，在不同时间尺度上探讨了控制内蒙古草地生态系统碳通量可能的生理机制。利用一年多净生态系统CO2气体交换（NEE）通量的观测，量化了这个地区草地生态系统的碳储备量，并进一步阐明了开垦对该区域生态系统物质能量流动的影响。我们还利用Keeling同位素曲线与微气象技术相结合的方法把生态系统夜间呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸;同时利用同化箱式法，把草地生态系统白天群落呼吸进行了区分，进一步了解了不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献。 结果表明，控制该地区生态系统碳通量主要的环境因子是土壤含水量（VWC）和温度。两个生态系统的植被叶面积指数（LAI）和生物量在非干旱季都要高于干旱季，因而两个生态系统在非干旱季不同环境因子的不同梯度下的NEEmax都比干旱季的要高。两个生态系统NEE的最大日变幅和日最大值在非旱季与旱季十分接近，说明即使土壤水分有所改善，但由于这个地区贫瘠的土壤限制了生态系统的净碳交换量而使这两个生态系统的固碳能力依旧不高。无论是旱季还是非旱季，草地生态系统呼吸的温度敏感系数Q10都随土壤含水量的增加而增加，这除了水分的促进作用外，另外就是生长旺季根生物量的增加。而在两个生长季里农田生态系统的Q10都随土壤含水量的变化不是很规则，这主要是因为农作改变了植被类型和土壤的物理结构从而引起生态系统微环境、微生物活性以及根生物量的改变，结果影响生态系统呼吸对温度的敏感性。 在连续两个生长季里，两个生态系统碳通量随季节的变化都有明显的日变化，7月份的日变化最大，而且农田生态系统的NEE日变幅大于草地生态系统NEE的日变幅。两个生态系统每个月NEE的日最大值都出现在上午8~9点左右，而生态系统的呼吸（RE）的日最大值都发生在下午14~16点左右。冬季两个生态系统各组分碳通量的日进程几乎都没有差异，系统基本处于碳平衡状态。进入春季，幼小的植被限制了生态系统的碳同化。期间的耕作促进了土壤CO2的大量释放，同时较频繁的降雨不仅影响植被吸收光以进行光合固定碳，同时也进一步加大了农田CO2的释放，结果农田生态系统释放的CO2比草地生态系统多。夏季，两个生态系统都是吸收碳的库，农田生态系统因较高的LAI和较低的生态系统呼吸温度敏感性使其NEP远高于草地生态系统的NEP，是一个较强的碳库。秋末，草地生态系统几乎处于碳平衡的状态。农作物的收割，使得大量含不溶性物质较低枯叶和秸秆残留在地里，农田生态系统呼吸释放的碳量显著高于同期草地释放的碳量。通过2005～2006年对两个生态系统碳通量进行一整年的观测，发现两个生态系统年净固碳量相当，草地净固定71.3 g C m-2，农田净固定64.4 g C m-2。但秋季的收获使农田生态系统近70%的生物量被收走，降低了该系统的固碳能力。 为进一步了解不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献量，我们利用浓度梯度-同位素法与微气象技术相结合的方法，初步将生态系统呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸。草地生态系统在生长旺季自养呼吸占总呼吸80%以上，而农田生态系统在生长季阶段异养呼吸所占整个生态呼吸的比例从60%上升至作物成熟时的80%以上。降雨不仅显著增加草地生态系统呼吸的释放量，而且主要是显著增加了异养呼吸的释放量。此外，我们还利用同化箱式法对草地生态系统的群落呼吸进行区分，结果显示群落总呼吸（Re）有明显的季节变化，最高值在生长季中期。凋落物分解、土壤有机质呼吸、根呼吸和地上植被呼吸在整个生长季平均分别占总生态系统呼吸的19.4%、37.8%、9.8%和32.9%。构建各组分呼吸通量与温度的指数关系，结果显示根呼吸的温度敏感系数最大，土壤有机质的温度敏感性最低。降雨后首先促进了异养呼吸，随后植物的呼吸也开始变大，群落呼吸释放的最高峰出现在雨后第二天。 本研究初步分析了控制内蒙古农牧交错区草地生态系统碳通量的主要因子，量化了该区域草地生态系统的碳储备量，并进一步阐述了开垦对该区域生态系统碳通量的影响。同时尝试不同方法对生态系统碳通量进行了区分，得出了一些具有生态学意义的结果，为进一步探讨控制生态系统碳通量的生理机制提供了可能。

青藏高原过牧草地上灌木种类和分布对小尺度植被格局的影响

植物种间作用是决定物种分布、种群动态、群落演变和生态系统功能的重要因子。长期以来，相关研究集中在竞争作用上。然而自1990年代以来，易化作用逐渐受到重视，被认为是植物群落中物种共存的主要推动力，尤其是在极端和受到干扰的环境中。很多研究都揭示出植物对其他特定的物种产生直接或间接的正向的作用。护卫植物主要通过两种机制对临近的物种产生正向作用，即对恶劣的自然环境的改善和对高强度干扰的阻止和减轻。灌木在很多条件下能够成为护卫植物，影响种群的分布、群落的多样性和生态系统的功能。 中国西南部的青藏高原的牧场上，非生物的环境胁迫（比如生长季短暂、辐射强度大和极端温度等）和生物的干扰作用（比如过度放牧等）都很强。有文献表明，随着过度放牧现象的加重和草地的不断退化，灌木的分布有逐渐扩大的趋势。针对灌木对过度放牧草地上小尺度植被格局的影响，我们在若尔盖地区展开了以下两方面的研究。 为了研究不同种类灌木的影响，我们在若尔盖高原上选择了既具有恶劣的自然环境又遭受过度放牧压力的草地，对三种灌木内外的相同大小面积上小尺度范围内的植被进行调查。三种灌木分别是高山绣线菊、窄叶鲜卑花和金露梅，它们在形态结构、高度和可食性上都存在差异。在不考虑灌木种类的基础上，我们发现物种丰度、总盖度、开花的物种数和花序数都是灌木内部高于外部，而均匀度则恰好相反，是外部要高于内部，香农多样性指数内外没有明显的差异。金露梅灌丛中内外物种丰度和均匀度的差异要明显高于窄叶鲜卑花，但是总盖度、开花的物种数和花序数的差异不随着灌木种类的不同而有明显的差异。大多数的物种（占总物种数的47-85%）并没有因为灌木的存在而在内外出现的频数上表现出差异，而相当一部分物种（占总物种数的13-39%）在灌木外部的频率要高，仅仅有很少的物种（占总物种数的3-13%）因为灌木的存在而受益，内部的频数要高于外部。这种对某些物种的保护作用没有表现在群落水平上，即提高群落的物种丰富度和多样性，因为同时发生的灌木和其他植物的竞争作用也会限制以致排除冠层下面某些物种的存在。灌木的可食性和形态结构（比如盖度、高度、冠层的紧实度等）能对它们跟其他植物的相互之间净作用的类型和强度产生影响。不同的灌木能保护不同种类、不同数量的植物，表明易化作用是物种特异性的，跟护卫植物有关，也跟受益者有关。通过植被的排序，金露梅和高山绣线菊内外的植被得到了很明显的分离，而窄叶鲜卑花的则没有。总体上来说，灌木的存在确实能够通过提高出现或开花的频率，保护了某些对放牧比较敏感的物种，而且这种易化作用是物种特异性的。内外植被的差异在放牧压力最大的金露梅灌丛中最大，表明过度放牧导致的大尺度的植被状况对于小尺度上灌丛内外的植被的差异所起的作用比灌木种类的作用更大。 为了研究同种灌木不同的分布类型对植被格局的影响，选择金露梅作为目标灌木。金露梅是当地常见灌木，有的植株孤立存在，有的则是很多株联合形成比较大的斑块。我们选择金露梅形成的斑块中央、外沿金露梅植株内部、外围和孤立的金露梅植株内部、外部五个位置，并在小尺度上进行了植被调查和比较，发现金露梅的存在确实保护了一些物种，但是种类有限，反而是大部分的物种在外部的频数要高与内部;从群落水平来看，金露梅冠层下的植被从丰富度、多样性上来讲并没有超过外部，仅仅是具有更高的均匀度和同质性;生殖方面的结果也是类似的，而且大部分物种跟其分布呈现出基本类似的格局。金露梅斑块的存在和自然围栏的产生没有起到很明显的保护作用，并没有使得斑块中央植被的丰富度、多样性、均匀度提高，而仅仅是提高了植物的长势（表现为具有较高的总盖度等）;在物种水平，没有发现什么特异种的存在，仅仅发现能够促进一些物种在内部的生长或开花，而且比例很低。在这种效应的影响下，斑块边缘的金露梅相对于孤立的金露梅而言，也没有表现出更好的保护植被的能力。几乎所有的群落水平的指标都仅仅是受到灌木内外这个因素的影响，而两种分布格局（即：在斑块边缘和孤立存在）的影响是微乎其微的。植被排序的结果也充分证明了这一点，灌木内外的植被被明显的分离开来，而不同灌木中相应位置的植被则是混杂在一起。并且在物种水平上，除了极个别的物种之外，绝大部分物种内外的差异是是一致的，没有受到灌木分布格局的影响。即使个别物种具有不同的格局，也没有证据表明是受到了斑块中央植被的影响而产生的。

The status and causes of alien species invasion in China

Data of classification, origin, pathway and environmental impacts of invasive alien micro-organisms, invertebrates, amphibians and reptiles, fish, birds, mammals, weeds, trees, and marine organisms in terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems of China, were analyzed, based on literature retrieval, field survey and consultation. Some 283 invasive alien species were recorded in China, including 19 invasive alien micro-organisms, 18 aquatic plants, 170 terrestrial plants, 25 aquatic invertebrates, 33 terrestrial invertebrates, 3 amphibians and reptiles, 10 fish, and 5 mammals. Of the invasive alien species, 55.1% originated from North and South America, 21.7% from Europe, 9.9% from Asia, 8.1% from Africa and 0.6% from Oceania. Many institutions and individuals in China lack adequate knowledge of ecological and environmental consequences caused by invasive alien species, with some ignorance of the dangerous invasion in the introduction of alien species. For instance, 50.0% of invasive alien plants were intentionally introduced as pasture, feedingstuff, ornamental plants, textile plants, medicinal plants, vegetables, or lawn plants, 25% of alien invasive animals were intentionally introduced for cultivation, ornament, or biological control, In addition, more efforts are being made in the introduction of alien species, and little attention is paid on the management of introduced alien species, which may cause their escape into natural environment and potential threats to the environment. There were also gaps in quarantine system in China. All microorganisms were unintentionally introduced, through timber, seedling, flowerpot, or soil; 76.3% of alien invasive animals invaded through commodity or transportation facility because of the failure of quarantine. Therefore, quarantine measures should be strictly implemented; and meanwhile the intentional introduction of alien species should be strictly managed and a system of risk assessment should be implemented.

黄土高原沟壑区王东沟流域土地利用/覆被变化过程初探

黄土高原沟壑区王东沟流域从1986年至2006年的土地利用/覆被发生了较大变化,土地利用动态指数分别为:耕地3.21%,园地-36.11%,林地-4.05%,牧草地4.24%,居民点及独立工矿用地-0.62%,交通运输用地-12.27%,未利用地1.85%;变化趋势是:耕地逐年向园地流转,园地变化烈度较大,其他各类用地变化不太显著。引起这一变化的主要因素是自然、社会、经济、技术以及政策因素。结合这一变化,针对黄土高原沟壑区的实际情况,在黄土高原沟壑区土地利用经营与管理方面,应重视土地产出效益与粮食安全的关系,在保障区域粮食安全的基础上实现效益最大化。

黄土丘陵植被恢复过程中土壤种子库萌发数量特征及动态变化

采用野外定点采样与室内土壤种子萌发试验相结合的研究方法,选取黄土丘陵区典型草原带宁夏固原地区不同植被恢复年限(2,5,12,24,35,55,75 a)及当年农地(对照)的8个样地,研究该区土壤种子库萌发数量特征及动态变化。结果表明,8个不同植被恢复年限样地土壤中可萌发的种子的平均数量为3542.5粒/m2,可萌发种子以双子叶植物为主,约占萌发总数的90%。0~5 cm土层可萌发种子数量变化于166.7~9100.0粒/m2;5~10 cm土层变化于133.38~2120.02粒/m2。土壤中可萌发种子数量随着恢复年限的增加表现先增加后下降的趋势。土壤中可萌发的种子数量随时间的变化近似单峰型,双子叶植物峰值主要出现在第4~6周,而单子叶植物萌发高峰在5~6周。表明在环境,气候等条件适宜时,黄土丘陵区典型草原带可萌发的土壤中的种子可形成萌发高峰。

退耕还林(草)和降雨变化对延河流域土壤侵蚀的影响

通过定量评估退耕还林(草)和降雨变化对延河流域土壤侵蚀的影响,为延河流域水土保持效益评价、流失治理和环境建设提供决策参考。【方法】利用延河流域日降雨、数字高程模型、土壤类型图、土地利用图和植被覆盖图,运用RUSLE模型,在ArcGIS平台的支持下计算流域1997年和2000年土壤侵蚀量,并分别模拟了退耕还林(草)和气候变化对土壤侵蚀的影响。【结果】由于降雨的变化,研究区年降雨侵蚀力均值由1997年的775.32MJ·mm·hm-2·h-1·a-1增加到了2000年的1292.07MJ·mm·hm-2·h-1·a-1,降雨大大加剧了流域土壤侵蚀;由于退耕还林(草)政策的实施,坡耕地面积大大减少,林草面积增加,植被覆盖和管理因子值显著减少,由退耕还林(草)前的0.1714下降到了退耕还林(草)后0.1592,减小了流域土壤侵蚀;由于退耕还林(草)的实施、气候变化以及水土保持工程措施和耕作措施变化共同影响,单位面积平均土壤侵蚀量由退耕还林(草)前的3012t·km-2·a-1增加到了退耕还林(草)后4671t·km-2·a-1,年土壤侵蚀总量2314×104t增加到了3589×104t。【结论】降雨变化使得...

牦牛粪便对青藏高原东部高寒草甸土壤养分系统的影响

川西北高寒草甸位于青藏高原东部地区，是我国四大牧区之一，也是长江和黄河等江河源区的重要水源涵养功能区。近几十年来，大量牦牛粪便被牧民作为生物能源、肥料或者食用菌产业的原料而利用，为草原生态系统的养分平衡增加了生态风险。鉴于在青藏高原地区针对牦牛粪便的相关研究尚未见报道，本文从粪便和土壤养分相互变化趋势的角度出发，研究了粪便在夏秋两季的分解状况和粪便其下及其周围土壤的养分变化。通过此研究，将有助于了解牦牛粪便在自然状态下的分解速率以及粪便对土壤养分及土壤微生物生物量的影响，为粪便对草地土壤生态系统的贡献提供概念性认识，同时也为高寒草甸草地这种脆弱生态系统的可持续管理提供理论依据。 针对牦牛粪便自身养分释放及其对土壤在时间和空间尺度上的影响，本文通过模拟牛粪堆积，在不同时间和固定区域内对牛粪和土壤进行了夏秋两季的采样测定，分析了牛粪及土壤NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P、有机C、全N 和全P 含量随时间的变化趋势。得到如下结果： 1. 在研究区域内，牛粪对草地生态系统具有较强的养分（N、P）贡献能力。据初步统计，其估值大致为氮素699~932 kg ha-1，P 素为110~147 kg ha-1。牛粪（湿重、干重）在夏秋季节的分解速率具有较大差异，夏季显著快于秋季。夏季牛粪湿重、干重在2 个月左右之后分别降为初期的14%和24%，而秋季同期分别降为35%和52%。牛粪养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P、有机C、全N 和全P）的分解速率在夏季也要显著快于秋季。秋季经过2 个月左右的分解之后，牛粪以上含量分别降至初始态的32%、60%、36%、64%、58%、63%和43%，远高于夏季的同期水平。 2. 在不同季节，牛粪周围的土壤养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K 和无机P）含量变化随时间改变呈现相同的趋势。但是，牛粪周围不同远近下土壤养分随时间的动态变化幅度略有不同。粪下土壤养分含量随时间变化波动较大，距粪便越远，随时间变化的变幅越为平缓。总体来说，在夏季由于粪便分解较快，对土壤养分的持续作用时间不及秋季，秋季粪便分解变慢，表现出养分的缓释特征。其次，牛粪对粪下土壤影响的持续时间也长于对周围土壤的作用时间。 3. 粪便对土壤养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P）影响的范围在不同季节具有差异。夏季要高于秋季，但对周围土壤养分影响的持续时间低于秋季。在夏季短期内，牛粪对土壤NO3--N 和速效K 含量的影响范围能够超过30cm，而对NH4+-N 和无机P 的影响范围则介于10cm 和30cm 之间。在2 个月左右之后，牛粪对周围土壤养分的影响能力基本消失。在秋季，牛粪对周围土壤养分影响范围难以达到30cm 处。粪便在夏季对其下土壤和周围土壤的有机C、全N 和全P 含量并无显著影响，但在秋季能显著增加其下土壤有机C、全N 和全P 含量。 4. 牛粪在秋季对土壤SMB-C、SMB-N 和SMB-P 含量的影响能够持续2 个月以上，由于秋冬季节牛粪分解缓慢，因此推断这种效应持续时间至少能够1 年左右。另一方面，牛粪在秋季对土壤SMB-C、SMB-N 和SMB-P 含量的影响范围主要集中在其下土壤，而周围的影响效应并不明显。 The grassland on the eastern fringe of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau was one of the four greatest pasture zones in our country and the main water conservation function zones in the hesastream of Yangtse River and Huanghe river. Rencent years, lots of dung in this area was used as biological energy, fertilizer or material of fungoid growing, leading to high risk of nutrient banlance in grassland ecosystem. In view of the researches on the impact of yak dung in this area are relatively rare, the present study focused on the relationship of dung and soil nutrient transformation in sunmer and autumn, which could profoundly illuminate the mechanism of dung decomposition and the effect of dung on soil chemical properties and soil microbe biomass. The present study also contributed to a basic understand and provided scientific management in the high-frigid ecosystem. Decomposition of yak dung and its effect on soil chemical properties in eastern grassland of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau were determined. The study simulated the real dung pats, took dung and soil samples at different time and fixed-point in summer and autumn. The samples were analysed for NO3--N, NH4+-N, available K, inorganic P, total organic C (TOC), total N (TN), total P (TP). It was concluded that: 1. In study area, the yak dung supplied to ecosystem substantial nutrient. It is estimated that the N contribution of dung was approximately 699~932 kg ha-1, P contribution was approximately 110~147 kg ha-1. The rate of yak decomposition was more rapid in summer than autumn, the wet and dry weight of yak decreased to 14% and 24% respectively after 2 months when dung excreted in summer, with 35% and 52% in autumn. The content of NO3--N、NH4+-N、available K、inorganic P、TOC、TN and TP in dung decomposed more rapid in summer too. After 2 months when dung excreted in autumn, the content of above nutrient decreased to 32%、60%、36%、64%、58%、63% and 43% respectively，which were significantly higher than summer. 2. The content of NO3--N、NH4+-N、available K and inorganic P in soil around dung had the same transformation trend in each season, whereas it was distinguishing at different gradient of distance from dung, the nutrient in soil below dung had the most significant change while the more far from dung, the less change in soil. It was concluded that the yak dung had prolong impacts on soil in autumn compared with summer, besides, it aslo showed that the yak dung had protract effect on soil below dung compared with soil around dung. 3. The yak dung had expansive impact on soil around dung in summer whereas had relatively short effect compared with autumn. In short-term at summer, there was a significant increase about the content of NO3--N and available K around 30cm radius from dung pat while the content of NH4+-N and inorganic P between 10cm to 30cm. After 2 months, the impact almost disappeared. In autumn, the effect was hard to reach 30cm. The yak dung had no significant effects on the content of TOC、TN and TP in soil below or around dung in summer whereas there was a obvious increase in soil below dung pat in autumn. 4. The duration of effect of yak dung on soil microbial biomass(SMB) C、N and P was at least 2 months, maybe even more than 1 year. On the other hand, the impact of dung on SMB-C、SMB-N and SMB-P mainly acted on soil below dung while no obious effect on soil around dung.

若尔盖湿地3种两栖类的种间竞争及畜牧业对其食性的影响

从空间、时间、食物3个方面研究了若尔盖湿地3种两栖类的种间竞争，运用生态位理论探讨了3种两栖类利用环境资源的能力以及它们之间的共存模式，研究了3种两栖类年周期食性，并考察了畜牧业对3种两栖类食性及食物竞争格局的影响；此外，还通过实验室研究对2种两栖类幼体的种间竞争策略进行了考察。主要结果如下： 1、两栖类的空间资源利用状况：在3种两栖类成体生态位宽度的比较中，岷山蟾蜍（Bufo minshanicus）成体在牧场性质(0.41)、牛粪数量(0.42)、植被盖度(0.20)、地表温度(0.50)、地表湿度(0.51) 5个维度上的生态位宽度最窄；而倭蛙（Nanorana pleskei）成体在牛粪数量(0.81)、植被高度(0.63)、植被盖度(0.47)、小水体距离(0.68) 4个维度上的生态位宽度最宽。在3种两栖类亚成体生态位宽度的比较中，岷山蟾蜍亚成体在牧场性质(0.66)、牛粪数量(0.58)、植被高度(0.64)、小水体距离(0.51)、地表湿度(0.79) 5个维度的上生态位宽度最宽；倭蛙亚成体在牧场性质(0.39)、牛粪数量(0.30)、地表温度(0.18)、地表湿度(0.33) 4个维度上的生态位宽度最窄。高原林蛙（Rana kukunoris）在地表温度（成体：0.62；亚成体：0.56）、地表湿度（成体：0.84；亚成体：0.60）两个维度上具有较大的生态位宽度值，而在小水体距离维度上（成体：0.27；亚成体：0.14）的生态位宽度值则很小。比较3种无尾两栖类在不同生长阶段（成体、亚成体）的生态位宽度，发现高原林蛙和倭蛙的亚成体对栖息环境的要求更高。3种两栖类空间资源利用的相似程度很高，高原林蛙与倭蛙之间的生态重叠度(0.87)较之它与岷山蟾蜍(0.81)的生态位重叠度更大。 2、两栖类的日活动节律：高原林蛙成体、亚成体、岷山蟾蜍亚成体活动的最低气温为0℃、2℃、8℃；岷山蟾蜍和高原林蛙亚成体出现的数量与气温成极显著的正相关（r=0.797, p<0.001；r=0.794, p<0.001），高原林蛙成体出现的数量与气温有一定相关性（r=0.456, p<0.05）；晴天时两栖类的活动性明显高于阴天（p<0.001）；多云转晴天气，高原林蛙和岷山蟾蜍亚成体出现两次日活动高峰，分别为中午12:30左右和下午15:30～16:30之间；多云天气，高原林蛙和岷山蟾蜍亚成体出现两次日活动高峰，分别为9:30～10:30之间和15:30～16:30之间。 3、两栖类的食物资源利用状况：春、秋两季，高原林蛙最主要的食物是蜉金龟科(Aphodiidae)昆虫，相对重要性指数(IRI)最高（春季：35.28%，秋季：28.57%），其次为昆虫的幼虫，以及双翅目的毛蚊科(Bibionidae)、蝇科(Muscidae)、丽蝇科(Calliphoridae)昆虫，秋季，蝗虫是高原林蛙食物组成中的重要部分；岷山蟾蜍最主要的食物是蚂蚁(IRI，春季：85.54%，秋季：49.70%)，其次为蜉金龟科、象甲科(Curculionidae)、步甲科(Carabidae)、粪金龟科(Geotrupidae) 等鞘翅目昆虫；倭蛙春季的最主要食物也是蜉金龟科昆虫(IRI，春季：13.41%)，其次为蚂蚁、毛蚊科昆虫、昆虫的幼虫以及狼蛛科(Lycosidae)。3种两栖类中，倭蛙的食性生态位宽度相对较宽（0.43），而岷山蟾蜍（0.09）和高原林蛙（0.22）的生态位宽度较窄，与春季相比，两栖类在秋季的食谱更宽。以利用食物种类为标准，春季高原林蛙与倭蛙的生态位重叠度(0.40)比它与岷山蟾蜍的生态位重叠度（0.33）更大。 4、畜牧业对两栖类食性及食物竞争格局的影响：以藏牦牛粪为食物或寄居场所的昆虫，如蜉金龟科、粪金龟科、毛蚊科、蝇科、丽蝇科昆虫和某些昆虫幼虫，是3种两栖类食物谱中最主要的组成部分，蜉金龟科昆虫在高原林蛙食谱中的比例更高，高原林蛙可能从畜牧业发展中获得更多的好处，使之在食物竞争方面处于优势地位。与无放牧样地相比，在有放牧样地的中，两栖类食谱中的蜉金龟科昆虫数量更多(有放牧：31.94%；无放牧：21.32%)、出现频率更高(有放牧：76.38%；无放牧：44%)。然而在不同样地上（有放牧/无放牧），两栖类的食物组成无显著性差异(P=0.188)，两栖类的数量(P=0.075)、肥满度(P=0.537)均没有显著差别。 5、两栖类幼体的竞争策略：实验室条件下，通过活动性水平，变态时的体重、增长率和完成变态所需时间考察自然条件下常同水塘分布的中华蟾蜍（Bufo gargarizans）和高原林蛙蝌蚪的竞争策略。结果表明：中华蟾蜍蝌蚪在不同食物资源条件下，所选择的生存策略可能不同，即食物资源充足时，增加活动性获取更多食物，食物资源有限时，降低活动性且提前完成变态；与中华蟾蜍蝌蚪相比，在食物资源有限时高原林蛙蝌蚪获取食物能力可能更强。 This paper presented the study of competition of three amphibians (Rana kukunoris, Nanorana pleskei, Bufo minshanicus) based on spatial, temporal and dietary scales in Zoige wetland. We measured coexistence patterns of three amphibians and analyzed their ability of exploiting resource. Effects of grazing on the diet composition and diet competition of amphibians were analyzed by their diet composition during spring and autumn. Furthermore, we examined the competitive ability of larval common frogs (Rana kukunoris)and common toads(Bufo gargarizans) in a laboratory experiment, and analyzed their competitive strategies respectively. The results were as follows: 1 .The status of using spatial resource Niche breadths of B. minshanicus adults on 5 dimensional axes including character of pasture(0.41), number of yaks dung(0.42), vegetation coverage(0.20), temperature (0.50)and humidity(0.51) of ground surface were narrower than adults of R. kukunoris and N. pleskei. Niche breadths of B. minshanicus subadults were broader than R.kukunoris subadults and N.pleskei subadults on 5 dimensional axes including character of pasture (0.66), number of yaks dung (0.58), vegetation height (0.64), distance to small waterbodies (0.51), humidity of ground surface (0.79). Niche breadths of N. pleskei subadults were the narrowest in three anurans subadults on 4 dimensional axes including character of pasture (0.39), number of yaks dung (0.30), temperature (0.18) and humidity (0.33) of ground surface, niche breadths of N. pleskei adults were the broadest in three anurans adults on 4 dimensional axes including number of yaks dung (0.81), vegetation height (0.63) and coverage(0.47), distance to small waterbodies(0.68).Comparatively, niche breadths of R. kukunoris were broader on the two microclimate factors including temperature(adults：0.62；subadults：0.56) and humidity (adults：0.84；subadults：0.60)of ground surface, but was narrow on distance to small waterbodies(adults：0.27；subadults：0.14). Strategies for using habitat resource of adults and subadults of the three species anuran were different. Generally, subadults of R. kukunoris and N. pleskei needs better habitat condition. It was quite similar that three anurans exploited spatial resource, Niche overlap between R. kukunoris and N. pleskei (0.87) was greater than that between R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus(0.81). 2.Daily activity rhythm R. kukunoris audlts were active when air temperatures were as low as 0℃, R. kukunoris subadults were active at 2℃, B.minshanicus subaudlts were active at 8℃. Positive correlation was found between activities of amphibians and air temperature, Subadults of R.kukunoris, (r=0.797, p<0.001), Subadults,of,B.minshanicus, (r=0.794, p<0.001), andbadults,of,R.kukunoris(r=0.456, p<0.05).Amphibians were more active during sunny days than cloudy days. In cloudy turning into sunny, R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus subadults had two active peak: at noon about 12:30 and 15:30～16:30 pm; in cloudy, R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus subadult had two active peak too : 9:30～10:30am,15:30～16:30pm. 3.Diet analysis Aphodiidae was the most commonly consumed food item by R. kukunoris based on index of relative importance (IRI) during spring (35.28%) and autumn (28.57%) in Zogie wetland. Besides Aphodiidae, larval insect, dipterans such as Bibionidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae also were important food item for R. kukunoris, in autumn, locust was one of important food item for R. kukunoris. The most important food item for B.minshanicus during spring (IRI:85.54%) and autumn (IRI:49.70%) was ants, following, was coleopterans, such as Aphodiidae, dung beetle. Aphodiidae (IRI:13.41%) were the most important consumed food item by N. pleskei during spring too, following, was ants and Bibionidae. Dietary breadth of N. pleskei (0.43) were greater than R. kukunoris (0.22) and B. minshanicus (0.09). As a whole, Dietary breadth of amphibians during aurumn were greater than spring. Based on prey item, dietary overlap between R. kukunoris and N. pleskei (0.40) was greater than that between R. kukunoris and B.minshanicus (0.33) during spring. 4.Effects of grazing on the diet composition and diet competition of amphibians Amphibians are an important part of the pasture ecosystems as prey and predator. In Zogie wetland, major diet of amphibians was closely associated with dung of yaks, for example, Aphodiidae, Bibionidae, Muscidae, dung beetle. Dung of yaks was major diet and habitat of these insects. Proportion of Aphodiidae was higher in diet composition of R. kukunoris than N. pleskei and B.minshanicus, with development of pasturage, R. kukunoris may have a diet competitive advantage over N. pleskei and B.minshanicus. Number of Aphodiidae in diet composition of amphibians was higher in samples with grazing (31.94%) than in those without grazing (21.32%). Occurrence Frequency of Aphodiidae in diet composition of amphibians was higher in samples with grazing (76.38%) than in those without grazing (44%). However, There was not significantly different on diet composition (P=0.188), and number (P=0.075) and the relative fatness (P=0.537) of amphibians between grazing samples and without grazing. 5.Competitive strategies of amphibian larvae I examined the competitive ability of larval toads (Bufo gargarizans) and frogs (Rana kukunoris) which co-occur in the nature pond by activity level, the growth rate and mass at metamorphosis and larval period in a laboratory experiment. The results suggest: In laborary, B.gargarizans adapted himself to different food level by changing activity. At high food level, B. gargarizans increased activity to gain more diet. At low food level, B. gargarizans decreased activity and achieved early metamorphosis. When food resource was limit, R. kukunoris could gain more food than B. gargarizans.

高寒湿地自然保护区多核心动态分区研究——以四川若尔盖湿地国家级自然保护区为例

中国拥有92466 Km2的各类高原湿地，具有湿地退化、过度放牧等相似特征，保护与利用矛盾突出。高寒湿地保护区尽管在制度上以核心区、缓冲区来约束当地的放牧等外来干扰行为，但在实际管理中却不能起到应有的作用。 本研究以四川若尔盖湿地国家级自然保护区为例，应用3S技术，建立保护区多功能动态分区工作流模型，通过不同植被类型的识别和空间特征分析、不同动物类群在上述植被生境中的时空分布特征分析、保护区主要干扰因素的时空分布特征分析，突出对保护区主要保护对象（湿地生态系统）的保护，对保护区进行管理分区，依据野生动物利用特征和植被生长特征对核心区进行年周期动态利用，缓解保护与发展的矛盾，促进保护区的优化管理。 应用归一化植被指数（NDVI）与植被盖度的相关性，将归一化植被指数（NDVI）转化为植被盖度指数（MDVI），结合保护区牧场划分和时空利用特征专家经验，结果表明，MDVI值在1-139之间主要代表着水体、裸地、沙地等；MDVI140-256为草地和高山灌丛；MDVI210是当地夏牧场和秋冬牧场的划分区间值。 合理的区划需要资金、技术和政策的支持，为保证保护区多核心动态分区的实施，本研究提出了生态工程、牧业发展方式转变、湿地特色产业发展、湿地政策、社区参与和科技支撑等六大保障措施。 In China, 92466 Km2 highland or frigid wetlands are (were) facing major management problems, such as wetland degradation and overgazing. Conflict between conservation and utilization on those wetlands can be found anywhere today. Although many nature reserves have been setup for protection of frigid wetland, and core and buffer zone has been declared to forbid any kinds of disturbance, local farmers still use these areas for grazing. As an example by Sichuan Roige Wetlands National Nature Reserve(SRWNRR), we set up a 3S flow model to analyze the character of year-round distribution patters of vegetation, wildlife, and grazing. Combined and overlapped these characters together, we select multi-core zone and buffer zone, then define a dynamic management period in different zone to optimize protection wetland in the reserve. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index（NDVI）is highly related with coverage of vegetation. When convert NDVI to MDVI (coverage index, 1-256), index 139 and 210 can be as inflexion to distinguish among water/sand/bared land, summer pasture, and autumn / winter pasture. We use these to select different layers and analyze grazing pattern. To be more realistic, we put forward some strategies to support our multi-core and dynamic management of wetland in Roige, including ecological restoration engineering, changing of stock raising industry, changing of wetland policy, community based management and technology renovation supports.

Impacts of LUCC processes on potential land productivity in China in the 1990s

Using meteorological data and RS dynamic land-use observation data set, the potential land productivity that is limited by solar radiation and temperature is estimated and the impacts of recent LUCC processes on it are analyzed in this paper. The results show that the influence of LUCC processes on potential land productivity change has extensive and unbalanced characteristics. It generally reduces the productivity in South China and increases it in North China, and the overall effect is increasing the total productivity by 26.22 million tons. The farmland reclamation and original farmlands losses are the primary causes that led potential land productivity to change. The reclamation mostly distributed in arable-pasture and arable-forest transitional zones and oasises in northwestern China has made total productivity increase by 83.35 million tons, accounting for 3.50% of the overall output. The losses of original farmlands driven by built-up areas invading and occupying arable land are mostly distributed in the regions which have rapid economic development, e.g. Huang-Huai-Hai plain, Yangtze River delta, Zhujiang delta, central part of Gansu, southeast coastal region, southeast of Sichuan Basin and Urumqi-Shihezi. It has led the total productivity to decrease 57.13 million tons, which is 2.40% of the overall output.

N2O fluxes from the native and grazed semi-arid steppes and their driving factors in Inner Mongolia, China

This paper presents results of 2 years (from January 2005 to December 2006) of measurement of N2O fluxes from the native and grazed Leymus chinensis (LC) steppes in Inner Mongolia, China using the static opaque chamber method. The measurement was at a frequency of twice per month in the growing season and once per month in the non-growing season. In addition, the possible effect of water-heat factors on N2O fluxes was statistically analyzed. The results indicated that there were distinct seasonal patterns in N2O fluxes with large fluxes in spring, summer, and autumn but negative fluxes in winter. The annual net emission of N2O ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 kg N2O-N ha(-1) and from 0.06 to 0.26 kg N2O-N ha(-1) from the native and grazed LC steppe, respectively. Grazing activities suppressed N2O production. In the growing season, soil moisture was the primary driving factor of N2O fluxes. The high seasonal variation of N2O fluxes was regulated by the distribution of effective rainfall, rather than precipitation intensity. Air temperature or soil temperature at 0, 5, and 10 cm depth was the most restricting factor of N2O fluxes in the non-growing season.

Radiation-use efficiency and the harvest index of winter wheat at different nitrogen levels and their relationships to canopy spectral reflectance

Radiation-use efficiency (RUE, g/MJ) and the harvest index (HI, unitless) are two helpful characteristics in interpreting crop response to environmental and climatic changes. They are also increasingly important for accurate crop yield simulation, but they are affected by various environmental factors. In this study, the RUE and HI of winter wheat and their relationships to canopy spectral reflectance were investigated based on the massive field measurements of five nitrogen (N) treatments. Crop production can be separated into light interception and RUE. The results indicated that during a long period of slow growth from emergence to regreening, the effect of N on crop production mainly showed up in an increased light interception by the canopy. During the period of rapid growth from regreening to maturity, it was present in both light interception and RUE. The temporal variations of RUEAPAR (aboveground biomass produced per unit of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by the canopy) during the period from regreening to maturity had different patterns corresponding to the N deficiency, N adequacy and N-excess conditions. Moreover, significant relationships were found between the RUEAPAR and the accumulative normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) in the integrated season (R-2 = 0.68), between the HI and the accumulative NDVI after anthesis (R-2 = 0.89), and between the RUEgrain (ratio of grain yield to the total amount of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by the canopy) and the accumulative NDVI of the whole season (R-2 = 0.89) and that after anthesis (R-2 = 0.94). It suggested that canopy spectral reflectance has the potential to reveal the spatial information of the RUEAPAR, HI and RUEgrain. It is hoped that this information will be useful in improving the accuracy of crop yield simulation in large areas.