Seasonal change in the structure of fig-wasp community and its implication for conservation

Figs (Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps (Agaonidae) constitute a famous reciprocal mutualism in which figs provide some female flowers for the development of fig wasp offspring while the fig wasps pollinate Fig flowers. However, figs also host many no

Fragmentation effects on diversity of wasp community and its impact on fig/fig wasp interaction in Ficus racemosa L.

Habitat fragmentation usually results in alteration of species composition or biological communities. However, little is known about the effect of habitat fragmentation on the fig/fig wasp system. In this study, we compared the structure of a fig wasp community and the interaction between figs and fig wasps of Ficus racemosa L. in a primary forest, a locally fragmented forest and a highly fragmented forest. Our results show that, in the highly fragmented forest, the proportion of pollinator wasps is lower and the proportion of non-pollinator wasps is higher compared with the primary forest and locally fragmented forest. The proportion of fruits without pollinator wasps in mature fruits is also greatly increased in the highly fragmented forest. The proportion of galls in all female flowers increases in the highly fragmented forest, whereas the proportion of viable seeds does not change considerably. The disruption of groups of fig trees results in a decrease in pollinator wasps and even might result in the extinction of pollinator wasps in some extreme cases, which may transform the reciprocal interaction between figs and fig wasps into a parasite/host system. Such an effect may lead to the local extinction of this keystone plant resource of rain forests in the process of evolution, and thereby, may change the structure and function of the tropical rain forest.

西双版纳热带雨林片断小气候边缘效应研究

以西双版纳地区三个热带雨林片断和一个原始热带雨林为对象，研究了林内至林外、以及林窗内小气候要素的水平和垂直梯度变化规律、小气候边缘效应及其与林缘方位之间的关系、林缘空气流动规律、边缘效应深度、片断后林内生境变化及对气候变化的抵抗能力。利用林墙太阳辐射理论，计算分析了各方位林缘的可照时数。根据Monteith的植物叶面热量平衡方程讨论了叶温度理论模拟方法，计算和分析土壤-植被-大气连续体（SPAC）能量平衡中各分量通量。主要结果如下： 1.西双版纳地区不同方位林缘可照时数一般比水平面减少，只有南向林缘在春、秋分日及北向林缘在夏至日的可照时数与水平面相同。在夏半年，北向林缘可照时间最长，东西向林缘次之，南向林缘最短；在冬半年，南向林缘可照时间最长，与水平面相同，东西向次之，北向林缘最短。年可照时数以南向林缘最长，北向林缘最短。 2.片断化热带森林的小气候边缘效应影响深度在北向林缘深至林内15m、在南向林缘深至林内25m。林外小气候水平梯度大于林内，这种梯度变异尤以林缘附近（-10m  10m范围）最大。统计世界各地研究结果，发现生物和物理环境的边缘效应深度变化于10  500m之间，但主要发生在100m范围内（占87%）。随着边缘效应深度增加或片断面积减小，正方形森林片断受林缘影响面积的百分率增加。圆形森林片断受边缘效应的“蚕食”作用最小，而狭长或不规则森林片断受边缘效应影响最大。 3.在南向林缘外侧10m范围内存在太阳辐射和温度较高地带；林窗边缘林墙壁面有显著得热力效应和水汽效应，尤其在北向边缘更显著。 4.林缘2/3H（H为林缘树高）高处以下及其以上（林冠层及上方）存在一反向双环流，在林冠层处其强度相对较弱。 5.片断化森林对外部变化抵御能力变得更为脆弱，林内环境由湿晾转向干暖，森林生态功能降低。 6.林缘植物叶温表现出气温型（Ta>Tl）、中间型（Ta=Tl）和辐射型（Tl>Ta）三种类型。林缘处草本植物与乔木、藤本植物之间的叶温差异显著，草本比乔木、藤本高约5℃。 7.叶面积指数在林缘最低和在林内25m处最大，林缘叶角小于林内，而在25m处散射光透过系数则最小。

Phylogeography of Pinus tabulaeformis Carr. (Pinaceae), a dominant species of coniferous forest in northern China

How coniferous trees in northern China changed their distribution ranges in response to Quaternary climatic oscillations remains largely unknown. Here we report a study of the phylogeography of Pinus tabulaeformis, an endemic and dominant species of coniferous forest in northern China. We examined sequence variation of maternally inherited, seed-dispersed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (nad5 intron 1 and nad4/3-4) and paternally inherited, pollen- and seed-dispersed chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) (rpl16 and trnS-trnG) within and among 30 natural populations across the entire range of the species. Six mitotypes and five chlorotypes were recovered among 291 trees surveyed. Population divergence was high for mtDNA variation (G(ST) = 0.738, N-ST = 0.771) indicating low levels of seed-based gene flow and significant phylogeographical structure (N-ST > G(ST), P < 0.05). The spatial distribution of mitotypes suggests that five distinct population groups exist in the species: one in the west comprising seven populations, a second with a north-central distribution comprising 15 populations, a third with a southern and easterly distribution comprising five populations, a fourth comprising one central and one western population, and a fifth comprising a single population located in the north-central part of the species' range. Each group apart from the fourth group is characterized by a distinct mitotype, with other mitotypes, if present, occurring at low frequency. It is suggested, therefore, that most members of each group apart from Group 4 are derived from ancestors that occupied different isolated refugia in a previous period of range fragmentation of the species, possibly at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. Possible locations for these refugia are suggested. A comparison of mitotype diversity between northern and southern subgroups within the north-central group of populations (Group 2) showed much greater uniformity in the northern part of the range both within and between populations. This could indicate a northward migration of the species from a southern refugium in this region during the postglacial period, although alternative explanations cannot be ruled out. Two chlorotypes were distributed across the geographical range of the species, resulting in lower levels of among-population chlorotype variation. The geographical pattern of variation for all five chlorotypes provided some indication of the species surviving past glaciations in more than one refugium, although differentiation was much less marked, presumably due to the greater dispersal of cpDNA via pollen.