Evaluating the impact of V2G services on the degradation of batteries in PHEV and EV

Many researchers and industry observers claim that electric vehicles (EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) could provide vehicle-to-grid (V2G) bulk energy and ancillary services to an electricity network. This work quantified the impact on various battery characteristics whilst providing such services. The sensitivity of the impact of V2G services on battery degradation was assessed for EV and PHEV for different battery capacities, charging regimes, and battery depth of discharge. Battery degradation was found to be most dependent on energy throughput for both the EV and PHEV powertrains, but was most sensitive to charging regime (for EVs) and battery capacity (for PHEVs). When providing ancillary services, battery degradation in both powertrains was most sensitive to individual vehicle battery depth of discharge. Degradation arising from both bulk energy and ancillary services could be minimised by reducing the battery capacity of the vehicle, restricting the number of hours connected and reducing the depth of discharge of each vehicle for ancillary services. Regardless, best case minimum impacts of providing V2G services are severe such as to require multiple battery pack replacements over the vehicle lifetime. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Hierarchically structured nanocarbon electrodes for flexible solid lithium batteries

The ever increasing demand for storage of electrical energy in portable electronic devices and electric vehicles is driving technological improvements in rechargeable batteries. Lithium (Li) batteries have many advantages over other rechargeable battery technologies, including high specific energy and energy density, operation over a wide range of temperatures (-40 to 70. °C) and a low self-discharge rate, which translates into a long shelf-life (~10 years) [1]. However, upon release of the first generation of rechargeable Li batteries, explosions related to the shorting of the circuit through Li dendrites bridging the anode and cathode were observed. As a result, Li metal batteries today are generally relegated to non-rechargeable primary battery applications, because the dendritic growth of Li is associated with the charging and discharging process. However, there still remain significant advantages in realizing rechargeable secondary batteries based on Li metal anodes because they possess superior electrical conductivity, higher specific energy and lower heat generation due to lower internal resistance. One of the most practical solutions is to use a solid polymer electrolyte to act as a physical barrier against dendrite growth. This may enable the use of Li metal once again in rechargeable secondary batteries [2]. Here we report a flexible and solid Li battery using a polymer electrolyte with a hierarchical and highly porous nanocarbon electrode comprising aligned multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanohorns (CNHs). Electrodes with high specific surface area are realized through the combination of CNHs with CNTs and provide a significant performance enhancement to the solid Li battery performance. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Revealing lithium-silicide phase transformations in nano-structured silicon-based lithium ion batteries via in situ NMR spectroscopy.

Nano-structured silicon anodes are attractive alternatives to graphitic carbons in rechargeable Li-ion batteries, owing to their extremely high capacities. Despite their advantages, numerous issues remain to be addressed, the most basic being to understand the complex kinetics and thermodynamics that control the reactions and structural rearrangements. Elucidating this necessitates real-time in situ metrologies, which are highly challenging, if the whole electrode structure is studied at an atomistic level for multiple cycles under realistic cycling conditions. Here we report that Si nanowires grown on a conducting carbon-fibre support provide a robust model battery system that can be studied by (7)Li in situ NMR spectroscopy. The method allows the (de)alloying reactions of the amorphous silicides to be followed in the 2nd cycle and beyond. In combination with density-functional theory calculations, the results provide insight into the amorphous and amorphous-to-crystalline lithium-silicide transformations, particularly those at low voltages, which are highly relevant to practical cycling strategies.

Binder free three-dimensional sulphur/few-layer graphene foam cathode with enhanced high-rate capability for rechargeable lithium sulphur batteries.

A novel ultra-lightweight three-dimensional (3-D) cathode system for lithium sulphur (Li-S) batteries has been synthesised by loading sulphur on to an interconnected 3-D network of few-layered graphene (FLG) via a sulphur solution infiltration method. A free-standing FLG monolithic network foam was formed as a negative of a Ni metallic foam template by CVD followed by etching away of Ni. The FLG foam offers excellent electrical conductivity, an appropriate hierarchical pore structure for containing the electro-active sulphur and facilitates rapid electron/ion transport. This cathode system does not require any additional binding agents, conductive additives or a separate metallic current collector thus decreasing the weight of the cathode by typically ∼20-30 wt%. A Li-S battery with the sulphur-FLG foam cathode shows good electrochemical stability and high rate discharge capacity retention for up to 400 discharge/charge cycles at a high current density of 3200 mA g(-1). Even after 400 cycles the capacity decay is only ∼0.064% per cycle relative to the early (e.g. the 5th cycle) discharge capacity, while yielding an average columbic efficiency of ∼96.2%. Our results indicate the potential suitability of graphene foam for efficient, ultra-light and high-performance batteries.

Bistable Vibration Energy Harvesters: a review

Powering electronics without depending on batteries is an open research field. Mechanical vibrations prove to be a reliable energy source, but low-frequency broadband vibrations cannot be harvested effectively using linear oscillators. This article discusses an alternative for harvesting such vibrations, with energy harvesters with two stable configurations. The challenges related to nonlinear dynamics are briefly discussed. Different existing designs of bistable energy harvesters are presented and classified, according to their feasibility for miniaturization. A general dynamic model for those designs is described. Finally, an extensive discussion on quantitative measures of evaluating the effectiveness of energy harvesters is accomplished, resulting in the proposition of a new dimensionless metric suited for a broadband analysis.

Carbon nanotubes: Present and future commercial applications

Worldwide commercial interest in carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is reflected in a production capacity that presently exceeds several thousand tons per year. Currently, bulk CNT powders are incorporated in diverse commercial products ranging from rechargeable batteries, automotive parts, and sporting goods to boat hulls and water filters. Advances in CNT synthesis, purification, and chemical modification are enabling integration of CNTs in thin-film electronics and large-area coatings. Although not yet providing compelling mechanical strength or electrical or thermal conductivities for many applications, CNT yarns and sheets already have promising performance for applications including supercapacitors, actuators, and lightweight electromagnetic shields.

The use of non-dimensional parameters to study stress in lithiumion battery electrode storage particles

Mechanical degradation is thought to be one of the causes of capacity fade within Lithium-Ion batteries. In this work we develop a coupled stress-diffusion model for idealized spherical storage particles, which is analogous to the development of thermal strains. We then non-dimensionalize the model and identify three important parameters that control the development of stress within these particles. We can therefore use a wide number of values for these parameters to make predictions about the stress responses of different materials. The maximum stress developed within the particle for different values of these parameters are plotted as stress maps. A two dimensional model of a battery was then developed, in order to study the effect of particle morphology. Copyright © 2012 by ASME.