Application of electron beams in thermal processing of semiconductor materials and devices

Rapid and effective thermal processing methods using electron beams are described in this paper. Heating times ranging from a fraction of a second to several seconds and temperatures up to 1400°C are attainable. Applications such as the annealing of ion implanted material, both without significant dopant diffusion and with highly controlled diffusion of impurities, are described. The technique has been used successfully to activate source/drain regions for fine geometry NMOS transistors. It is shown that electron beams can produce localised heating of semiconductor substrates and a resolution of approximately 1 μm has been achieved. Electron beam heating has been applied to improving the crystalline quality of silicon-on sapphire used in CMOS device fabrication. Silicon layers with defect levels approaching bulk material have been obtained. Finally, the combination of isothermal and selective annealing is shown to have application in recrystallisation of polysilicon films on an insulating layer. The approach provides the opportunity of producing a silicon-on-insulator substrate with improved crystalline quality compared to silicon-on-sapphire at a potentially lower cost. It is suggested that rapid heating methods are expected to provide a real alternative to conventional furnace processing of semiconductor devices in the development of fabrication technology. © 1984 Benn electronics Publications Ltd, Luton.

Viscoelastic microbuckling of fiber composites

A theoretical study is given of viscoelastic microbuckling of fiber composites. The analysis is formulated in terms of general linear viscoelastic behavior within the kink band. Material outside the kink band is assumed to behave elastically. Two specific forms of linear viscoelastic behavior are considered: a standard linear viscoelastic model and a logarithmically creeping model. Results are provided as deformation versus time histories and failure life versus applied stress. Failure is due to either the attainment of a critical failure strain in the kink band or to the intervention of a different failure mechanism such as plastic microbuckling.

Analytical techniques for indentation of viscoelastic materials

Indentation of linearly viscoelastic materials is explored using elastic-viscoelastic correspondence analysis for both conical-pyramidal and spherical indentation. Boltzmann hereditary integrals are used to generate displacement-time solutions for loading at constant rate and creep following ramp loading. Experimental data for triangle- and trapezoidal-loading are examined for commercially-available polymers and compared with analytical solutions. Emphasis is given to the use of multiple experiments to test the fidelity and predictive capability of the obtained material creep function. Plastic deformation occurs in sharp indentation of glassy polymers and is found to complicate the viscoelastic analysis. A new method is proposed for estimating a material time-constant from peak displacement or hardness data obtained in pyramidal indentation tests performed at different loading rates.

Viscoelastic properties of bone as a function of hydration state determined by nanoindentation

Spherical indentation creep testing was used to examine the effect of hydration state on bone mechanical properties. Analysis of creep data was based on the elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle and utilized a direct solution for the finite loading-rate experimental conditions. The zero-time shear modulus was computed from the creep compliance function and compared to the indentation modulus obtained via conventional indentation analysis, based on an elastic unloading response. The method was validated using a well-known polymer material under three different loading conditions. The method was applied to bone samples prepared with different water content by partial exchange with ethanol, where 70% ethanol was considered as the baseline condition. A hydration increase was associated with a 43% decrease in stiffness, while a hydration decrease resulted in a 20% increase in bone tissue stiffness.

A model for nonlinear viscoelastic mechanical responses of collagenous soft tissues

Experimental observations of the time-dependent mechanical responses of collagenous tissues have demonstrated behavior that deviates from standard treatments of linear or quasi-linear viscoelasticity. In particular, time-dependent deformation can be strongly coupled to strain level, and strain-rate independence can be observed under monotonic loading, even for a tissue with dramatic stress relaxation. It was postulated that this nonlinearity is fundamentally associated with gradual recruitment of individual collagen fibrils during applied mechanical loading. Based on previously observed experimental results for the time-dependent response of collagenous soft tissues, a model is developed to describe the mechanical behavior of these tissues under uniaxial loading. Tissue stresses, under applied strain-controlled loading, are assumed to be a sum of elastic and viscoelastic stress contributions. The relative contributions of elastic and viscoelastic stresses is assumed to vary with strain level, leading to strain- and time-dependent mechanical behavior. The model formulation is examined under conditions of monotonic loading at varying constant strain rates and stress-relaxation at different applied strain levels. The model is compared with experimental data for a membranous biological soft tissue, the amniotic sac, and is found to agree well with experimental results. The limiting behavior of the novel model, at large strains relative to the collagen recruitment, is consistent with the quasi-linear viscoelastic approach. © 2006 Materials Research Society.

Estimating material elasticity by spherical indentation load-relaxation tests on viscoelastic samples of finite thickness

A two-step viscoelastic spherical indentation method is proposed to compensate for 1) material relaxation and 2) sample thickness. In the first step, the indenter is moved at a constant speed and the reaction force is measured. In the second step, the indenter is held at a constant position and the relaxation response of the material is measured. Then the relaxation response is fit with a multi-exponential function which corresponds to a three-branch general Maxwell model. The relaxation modulus is derived by correcting the finite ramp time introduced in the first step. The proposed model takes into account the sample thickness, which is important for applications in which the sample thickness is less than ten times the indenter radius. The model is validated numerically by finite element simulations. Experiments are carried out on a 10% gelatin phantom and a chicken breast sample with the proposed method. The results for both the gelatin phantom and the chicken breast sample agree with the results obtained from a surface wave method. Both the finite element simulations and experimental results show improved elasticity estimations by incorporating the sample thickness into the model. The measured shear elasticities of the 10% gelatin sample are 6.79 and 6.93 kPa by the proposed finite indentation method at sample thickness of 40 and 20 mm, respectively. The elasticity of the same sample is estimated to be 6.53 kPa by the surface wave method. For the chicken breast sample, the shear elasticity is measured to be 4.51 and 5.17 kPa by the proposed indentation method at sample thickness of 40 and 20 mm, respectively. Its elasticity is measured by the surface wave method to be 4.14 kPa. © 2011 IEEE.