A Stochastic Model for Electron Multiplication Charge-Coupled Devices - From Theory to Practice

Electron multiplication charge-coupled devices (EMCCD) are widely used for photon counting experiments and measurements of low intensity light sources, and are extensively employed in biological fluorescence imaging applications. These devices have a complex statistical behaviour that is often not fully considered in the analysis of EMCCD data. Robust and optimal analysis of EMCCD images requires an understanding of their noise properties, in particular to exploit fully the advantages of Bayesian and maximum-likelihood analysis techniques, whose value is increasingly recognised in biological imaging for obtaining robust quantitative measurements from challenging data. To improve our own EMCCD analysis and as an effort to aid that of the wider bioimaging community, we present, explain and discuss a detailed physical model for EMCCD noise properties, giving a likelihood function for image counts in each pixel for a given incident intensity, and we explain how to measure the parameters for this model from various calibration images. © 2013 Hirsch et al.

A simple diesel engine air-path model to predict the cylinder charge during transients: Strategies for reducing transient emissions spikes

Simple air-path models for modern (VGT/EGR equipped) diesel engines are in common use, and have been reported in the literature. This paper addresses some of the shortcomings of control-oriented models to allow better prediction of the cylinder charge properties. A fast response CO2 analyzer is used to validate the model by comparing the recorded and predicted CO2 concentrations in both the intake port and exhaust manifold of one of the cylinders. Data showing the recorded NOx emissions and exhaust gas opacity during a step change in engine load illustrate the spikes in both NOx and smoke seen during transient conditions. The predicted cylinder charge properties from the model are examined and compared with the measured NOx and opacity. Together, the emissions data and charge properties paint a consistent picture of the phenomena occurring during the transient. Alternative strategies for the fueling and cylinder charge during these load transients are investigated and discussed. Experimental results are presented showing that spikes in both NOx and smoke can be avoided at the expense of some loss in torque response. Even if the torque response must be maintained, it is demonstrated that it is still possible to eliminate spikes in NOx emissions for the transient situation being examined. Copyright © 2006 SAE International.

Noncontact measurement of charge carrier lifetime and mobility in GaN nanowires

The first noncontact photoconductivity measurements of gallium nitride nanowires (NWs) are presented, revealing a high crystallographic and optoelectronic quality achieved by use of catalyst-free molecular beam epitaxy. In comparison with bulk material, the NWs exhibit a long conductivity lifetime (>2 ns) and a high mobility (820 ± 120 cm 2/(V s)). This is due to the weak influence of surface traps with respect to other III-V semiconducting NWs and to the favorable crystalline structure of the NWs achieved via strain-relieved growth. © 2012 American Chemical Society.

Direct observation of charge-carrier heating at WZ-ZB InP nanowire heterojunctions.

We have investigated the dynamics of hot charge carriers in InP nanowire ensembles containing a range of densities of zinc-blende inclusions along the otherwise wurtzite nanowires. From time-dependent photoluminescence spectra, we extract the temperature of the charge carriers as a function of time after nonresonant excitation. We find that charge-carrier temperature initially decreases rapidly with time in accordance with efficient heat transfer to lattice vibrations. However, cooling rates are subsequently slowed and are significantly lower for nanowires containing a higher density of stacking faults. We conclude that the transfer of charges across the type II interface is followed by release of additional energy to the lattice, which raises the phonon bath temperature above equilibrium and impedes the carrier cooling occurring through interaction with such phonons. These results demonstrate that type II heterointerfaces in semiconductor nanowires can sustain a hot charge-carrier distribution over an extended time period. In photovoltaic applications, such heterointerfaces may hence both reduce recombination rates and limit energy losses by allowing hot-carrier harvesting.

A laboratory-scale buried charge simulator

An experimental technique has been developed in order to mimic the effect of landmine loading on materials and structures to be studied in a laboratory setting, without the need for explosives. Compressed gas is discharged beneath a sand layer, simulating the dynamic flow generated by a buried explosive. High speed photography reveals that the stages of soil motion observed during a landmine blast are replicated. The effect of soil saturation and the depth of the sand layer on sand motion are evaluated. Two series of experiments have been performed with the buried charge simulator to characterise subsequent impact of the sand. First, the time variation in pressure and impulse during sand impact on a stationary target is evaluated using a Kolsky bar apparatus. It is found that the pressure pulse imparted to the Kolsky bar consists of two phases: an initial transient phase of high pressure (attributed to wave propagation effects in the impacting sand), followed by a lower pressure phase of longer duration (due to lateral flow of the sand against the Kolsky bar). Both phases make a significant contribution to the total imparted impulse. It is found that wet sand exerts higher peak pressures and imparts a larger total impulse than dry sand. The level of imparted impulse is determined as a function of sand depth, and of stand-off distance between the sand and the impacted end of the Kolsky bar. The second study uses a vertical impulse pendulum to measure the momentum imparted by sand impact to a target which is free to move vertically. The effect of target mass upon imparted momentum is investigated. It is concluded that the laboratory-scale sand impact apparatus is a flexible tool for investigating the interactions between structures and dynamic sand flows. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The influence of 1D, meso- and crystal structures on charge transport and recombination in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells

We have prepared single crystalline SnO2 and ZnO nanowires and polycrystalline TiO2 nanotubes (1D networks) as well as nanoparticle-based films (3D networks) from the same materials to be used as photoanodes for solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells. In general, superior photovoltaic performance can be achieved from devices based on 3-dimensional networks, mostly due to their higher short circuit currents. To further characterize the fabricated devices, the electronic properties of the different networks were measured via the transient photocurrent and photovoltage decay techniques. Nanowire-based devices exhibit extremely high, light independent electron transport rates while recombination dynamics remain unchanged. This indicates, contrary to expectations, a decoupling of transport and recombination dynamics. For typical nanoparticle-based photoanodes, the devices are usually considered electron-limited due to the poor electron transport through nanocrystalline titania networks. In the case of the nanowire-based devices, the system becomes limited by the organic hole transporter used. In the case of polycrystalline TiO2 nanotube-based devices, we observe lower transport rates and higher recombination dynamics than their nanoparticle-based counterparts, suggesting that in order to improve the electron transport properties of solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells, single crystalline structures should be used. These findings should aid future design of photoanodes based on nanowires or porous semiconductors with extended crystallinity to be used in dye-sensitized solar cells. © 2013 The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Electrical detection of trapped charge displacements using an ultra-thin SOI percolation transistor

Electrical detection of solid-state charge qubits requires ultrasensitive charge measurement, typically using a quantum point contact or single-electron-transistor, which imposes strict limits on operating temperature, voltage and current. A conventional FET offers relaxed operating conditions, but the back-action of the channel charge is a problem for such small quantum systems. Here, we discuss the use of a percolation transistor as a measurement device, with regard to charge sensing and backaction. The transistor is based on a 10nm thick SOI channel layer and is designed to measure the displacement of trapped charges in a nearby dielectric. At cryogenic temperatures, the trapped charges result in strong disorder in the channel layer, so that current is constrained to a percolation pathway in sub-threshold conditions. A microwave driven spatial Rabi oscillation of the trapped charge causes a change in the percolation pathway, which results in a measurable change in channel current. © The Electrochemical Society.

Single sublattice endotaxial phase separation driven by charge frustration in a complex oxide.

Complex transition-metal oxides are important functional materials in areas such as energy and information storage. The cubic ABO3 perovskite is an archetypal example of this class, formed by the occupation of small octahedral B-sites within an AO3 network defined by larger A cations. We show that introduction of chemically mismatched octahedral cations into a cubic perovskite oxide parent phase modifies structure and composition beyond the unit cell length scale on the B sublattice alone. This affords an endotaxial nanocomposite of two cubic perovskite phases with distinct properties. These locally B-site cation-ordered and -disordered phases share a single AO3 network and have enhanced stability against the formation of a competing hexagonal structure over the single-phase parent. Synergic integration of the distinct properties of these phases by the coherent interfaces of the composite produces solid oxide fuel cell cathode performance superior to that expected from the component phases in isolation.

On the variation of the 2DEG charge density with the density of the surface donor traps in AiGaN/GaN transistors

Gallium nitride (GaN) has a bright future in high voltage device owing to its remarkable physical properties and the possibility of growing heterostructures on silicon substrates. GaN High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) are expected to make a strong impact in off line applications and LED drives. However, unlike in silicon-based power devices, the on-state resistance of HEMT devices is hugely influenced by donor and acceptor traps at interfaces and in the bulk. This study focuses on the influence of donor traps located at the top interface between the semiconductor layer and the silicon nitride on the 2DEG density. It is shown through TCAD simulations and analytical study that the 2DEG charge density has an 'S' shape variation with two distinctive 'flat' regions, wherein it is not affected by the donor concentration, and one linear region. wherein the channel density increases proportionally with the donor concentration. We also show that the upper threshold value of the donor concentration within this 'S' shape increases significantly with the AIGaN thickness and the Al mole fraction and is highly affected by the presence of a thin GaN cap layer. © 2013 IEEE.