A possible alchemist apparatus from the early islamic period excavated at Ramla, Israel

Abstract: During extensive salvage excavations carried out during the years 2004-2008 in a large Early Islamic industrial area at the vicinities of Ramla, in Central Israel, an unparalleled industrial device was unearthed. The star-shaped, soil embedded installation, whose lower part was preserved, consisted of a central pottery jar surrounded by five minor jars, linked by ceramic pipes. Evidence of heat was observed mainly around the central vessel, and metal hollow cones perforated in the tip were found inside the surrounding jars. Although the manufacturing procedures and operation techniques of the installation are not completely clear, it is proposed that the installation is part of an industrial workshop or an alchemy laboratory. Both industry and alchemy were well-developed during the Early Islamic period and very often closely related, to the point that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between them. The identification proposed is based on comparisons with tools described in literary sources, and somewhat later drawings and etchings. Circumstantial ceramic evidence was found, as well as the proximity of a bathhouse whose guests could have been the consumers of perfumes and unguents seem to reinforce this possibility. Due to the poor state of preservation of the device and the lack of available comparisons, the identification proposed here is tentative, and future research coupled with eventual new discoveries is needed in order to clarify this matter.

El federalismo en el origen, consolidación, desarrollo y superación del constitucionalismo

Resumen: Los poderes territoriales predominaron en el nacimiento de los Estados en Europa occidental, en los que se advierten contrapesos entre órganos, de sustento consuetudinario y reconocimiento escrito de derechos. En la aparición y el afianzamiento del constitucionalismo escrito tienen singular importancia la transformación de confederaciones en Estados federales, en Estados Unidos, Suiza y Alemania; así como los procesos de Venezuela, Colombia, México, Brasil y Argentina. Su consolidación resulta de los sistemas de control de constitucionalidad: el difuso, que nace en Estados Unidos; y el concentrado, que comienza en Austria; ambos países federales. En la actualidad los Estados semicontinentales y las regiones de similares dimensiones pueden entenderse como superación del constitucionalismo, pues se ha modificado sustancialmente su ámbito geográfico, el cual resulta esencial para que la representación posea una inmediación suficiente y puedan funcionar los frenos y contrapesos que aseguran la moderación del poder. Una gran autonomía y fortaleza de las instituciones locales, es decir un auténtico federalismo, puede configurar un reaseguro suficiente para los objetivos iniciales del constitucionalismo: que el reconocimiento de los derechos y los equilibrios entre los titulares de poderes locales y centrales tengan la oportunidad de lograrse.