Modellazione strutturale di edifici storici in muratura e misti: valutazioni comparate e criteri operativi

L’obiettivo della presente tesi è evidenziare l’importanza dell’approccio critico alla valutazione della vulnerabilità sismica di edifici in muratura e misti Il contributo della tesi sottolinea i diversi risultati ottenuti nella modellazione di tre edifici esistenti ed uno ipotetico usando due diversi programmi basati sul modello del telaio equivalente. La modellazione delle diverse ipotesi di vincolamento ed estensione delle zone rigide ha richiesto la formulazione di quattro modelli di calcolo in Aedes PCM ed un modello in 3muri. I dati ottenuti sono stati confrontati, inoltre, con l’analisi semplificata speditiva per la valutazione della vulnerabilità a scala territoriale prevista nelle “Linee Guida per la valutazione e riduzione del rischio sismico del Patrimonio Culturale”. Si può notare che i valori ottenuti sono piuttosto diversi e che la variabilità aumenta nel caso di edifici non regolari, inoltre le evidenze legate ai danni realmente rilevati sugli edifici mostrano un profondo iato tra la previsione di danno ottenuta tramite calcolatore e le lesioni rilevate; questo costituisce un campanello d’allarme nei confronti di un approccio acritico nei confronti del mero dato numerico ed un richiamo all’importanza del processo conoscitivo. I casi di studio analizzati sono stati scelti in funzione delle caratteristiche seguenti: il primo è una struttura semplice e simmetrica nelle due direzioni che ha avuto la funzione di permettere di testare in modo controllato le ipotesi di base. Gli altri sono edifici reali: il Padiglione Morselli è un edificio in muratura a pianta a forma di C, regolare in pianta ed in elevazione solamente per quanto concerne la direzione y: questo ha permesso di raffrontare il diverso comportamento dei modelli di calcolo nelle sue direzioni; il liceo Marconi è un edificio misto in cui elementi in conglomerato cementizio armato affiancano le pareti portanti in muratura, che presenta un piano di copertura piuttosto irregolare; il Corpo 4 dell’Ospedale di Castelfranco Emilia è un edificio in muratura, a pianta regolare che presenta le medesime irregolarità nel piano sommitale del precedente. I dati ottenuti hanno dimostrato un buon accordo per la quantificazione dell’indice di sicurezza per i modelli regolari e semplici con uno scarto di circa il 30% mentre il delta si incrementa per le strutture irregolari, in particolare quando le pareti portanti in muratura vengono sostituite da elementi puntuali nei piani di copertura arrivando a valori massimi del 60%. I confronti sono stati estesi per le tre strutture anche alla modellazione proposta dalle Linee Guida per la valutazione dell’indice di sicurezza sismica a scala territoriale LV1 mostrando differenze nell’ordine del 30% per il Padiglione Morselli e del 50% per il Liceo Marconi; il metodo semplificato risulta correttamente cautelativo. È, quindi, possibile affermare che tanto più gli edifici si mostrano regolari in riferimento a masse e rigidezze, tanto più la modellazione a telaio equivalente restituisce valori in accordo tra i programmi e di più immediata comprensione. Questa evidenza può essere estesa ad altri casi reali divenendo un vero e proprio criterio operativo che consiglia la suddivisione degli edifici esistenti in muratura, solitamente molto complessi poiché frutto di successive stratificazioni, in parti più semplici, ricorrendo alle informazioni acquisite attraverso il percorso della conoscenza che diviene in questo modo uno strumento utile e vitale. La complessità dell’edificato storico deve necessariamente essere approcciata in una maniera più semplice identificando sub unità regolari per percorso dei carichi, epoca e tecnologia costruttiva e comportamento strutturale dimostrato nel corso del tempo che siano più semplici da studiare. Una chiara comprensione del comportamento delle strutture permette di agire mediante interventi puntuali e meno invasivi, rispettosi dell’esistente riconducendo, ancora una volta, l’intervento di consolidamento ai principi propri del restauro che includono i principi di minimo intervento, di riconoscibilità dello stesso, di rispetto dei materiali esistenti e l’uso di nuovi compatibili con i precedenti. Il percorso della conoscenza diviene in questo modo la chiave per liberare la complessità degli edifici storici esistenti trasformando un mero tecnicismo in una concreta operazione culturale . Il presente percorso di dottorato è stato svolto in collaborazione tra l’Università di Parma, DICATeA e lo Studio di Ingegneria Melegari mediante un percorso di Apprendistato in Alta Formazione e Ricerca.

Intermediate hosts of Toxoplasma gondii and food safety:epidemiology, genetics and parasite survival in meat-producing animals in Italy

Toxoplasma gondii is a coccidian parasite with a global distribution. The definitive host is the cat (and other felids). All warm-blooded animals can act as intermediate hosts, including humans. Sexual reproduction (gametogony) takes place in the final host and oocysts are released in the environment, where they then sporulate to become infective. In intermediate hosts the cycle is extra-intestinal and results in the formation of tachyzoites and bradyzoites. Tachyzoites represent the invasive and proliferative stage and on entering a cell it multiplies asexually by endodyogeny. Bradyzoites within tissue cysts are the latent form. T. gondii is a food-borne parasite causing toxoplasmosis, which can occur in both animals and humans. Infection in humans is asymptomatic in more than 80% of cases in Europe and North-America. In the remaining cases patients present fever, cervical lymphadenopathy and other non-specific clinical signs. Nevertheless, toxoplasmosis is life threatening if it occurs in immunocompromised subjects. The main organs involved are brain (toxoplasmic encephalitis), heart (myocarditis), lungs (pulmonary toxoplasmosis), eyes, pancreas and parasite can be isolated from these tissues. Another aspect is congenital toxoplasmosis that may occur in pregnant women and the severity of the consequences depends on the stage of pregnancy when maternal infection occurs. Acute toxoplasmosis in developing foetuses may result in blindness, deformation, mental retardation or even death. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in recent reports on zoonoses, highlighted that an increasing numbers of animals resulted infected with T. gondii in EU (reported by the European Member States for pigs, sheep, goats, hunted wild boar and hunted deer, in 2011 and 2012). In addition, high prevalence values have been detected in cats, cattle and dogs, as well as several other animal species, indicating the wide distribution of the parasite among different animal and wildlife species. The main route of transmission is consumption of food and water contaminated with sporulated oocysts. However, infection through the ingestion of meat contaminated with tissue cysts is frequent. Finally, although less frequent, other food products contaminated with tachyzoites such as milk, may also pose a risk. The importance of this parasite as a risk for human health was recently highlighted by EFSA’s opinion on modernization of meat inspection, where Toxoplasma gondii was identified as a relevant hazard to be addressed in revised meat inspection systems for pigs, sheep, goats, farmed wild boar and farmed deer (Call for proposals -GP/EFSA/BIOHAZ/2013/01). The risk of infection is more highly associated to animals reared outside, also in free-range or organic farms, where biohazard measure are less strict than in large scale, industrial farms. Here, animals are kept under strict biosecurity measures, including barriers, which inhibit access by cats, thus making soil contamination by oocysts nearly impossible. A growing demand by the consumer for organic products, coming from free-range livestock, in respect of animal-welfare, and the desire for the best quality of derived products, have all led to an increase in the farming of free-range animals. The risk of Toxoplasma gondii infection increases when animals have access to environment and the absence of data in Italy, together with need for in depth study of both the prevalence and genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii present in our country were the main reasons for the development of this thesis project. A total of 152 animals have been analyzed, including 21 free-range pigs (Suino Nero race), 24 transhumant Cornigliese sheep, 77 free-range chickens and 21 wild animals. Serology (on meat juice) and identification of T. gondii DNA through PCR was performed on all samples, except for wild animals (no serology). An in-vitro test was also applied with the aim to find an alternative and valid method to bioassay, actually the gold standard. Meat samples were digested and seeded onto Vero cells, checked every day and a RT-PCR protocol was used to determine an eventual increase in the amount of DNA, demonstrating the viability of the parasite. Several samples were alos genetically characterized using a PCR-RFLP protocol to define the major genotypes diffused in the geographical area studied. Within the context of a project promoted by Istituto Zooprofilattico of Pavia and Brescia (Italy), experimentally infected pigs were also analyzed. One of the aims was to verify if the production process of cured “Prosciutto di Parma” is able to kill the parasite. Our contribution included the digestion and seeding of homogenates on Vero cells and applying the Elisa test on meat juice. This thesis project has highlighted widespread diffusion of T. gondii in the geographical area taken into account. Pigs, sheep, chickens and wild animals showed high prevalence of infection. The data obtained with serology were 95.2%, 70.8%, 36.4%, respectively, indicating the spread of the parasite among numerous animal species. For wild animals, the average value of parasite infection determined through PCR was 44.8%. Meat juice serology appears to be a very useful, rapid and sensitive method for screening carcasses at slaughterhouse and for marketing “Toxo-free” meat. The results obtained on fresh pork meat (derived from experimentally infected pigs) before (on serum) and after (on meat juice) slaughter showed a good concordance. The free-range farming put in evidence a marked risk for meat-producing animals and as a consequence also for the consumer. Genotyping revealed the diffusion of Type-II and in a lower percentage of Type-III. In pigs is predominant the Type-II profile, while in wildlife is more diffused a Type-III and mixed profiles (mainly Type-II/III). The mixed genotypes (Type-II/III) could be explained by the presence of mixed infections. Free-range farming and the contact with wildlife could facilitate the spread of the parasite and the generation of new and atypical strains, with unknown consequences on human health. The curing process employed in this study appears to produce hams that do not pose a serious concern to human health and therefore could be marketed and consumed without significant health risk. Little is known about the diffusion and genotypes of T. gondii in wild animals; further studies on the way in which new and mixed genotypes may be introduced into the domestic cycle should be very interesting, also with the use of NGS techniques, more rapid and sensitive than PCR-RFLP. Furthermore wildlife can become a valuable indicator of environmental contamination with T. gondii oocysts. Other future perspectives regarding pigs include the expansion of the number of free-range animals and farms and for Cornigliese sheep the evaluation of other food products as raw milk and cheeses. It should be interesting to proceed with the validation of an ELISA test for infection in chickens, using both serum and meat juice on a larger number of animals and the same should be done also for wildlife (at the moment no ELISA tests are available and MAT is the reference method for them). Results related to Parma ham do not suggest a concerning risk for consumers. However, further studies are needed to complete the risk assessment and the analysis of other products cured using technological processes other than those investigated in the present study. For example, it could be interesting to analyze products such as salami, produced with pig meat all over the Italian country, with very different recipes, also in domestic and rural contexts, characterized by a very short period of curing (1 to 6 months). Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most diffuse food-borne parasites globally. Public health safety, improved animal production and protection of endangered livestock species are all important goals of research into reliable diagnostic tools for this infection. Future studies into the epidemiology, parasite survival and genotypes of T. gondii in meat producing animals should continue to be a research priority.