Marine Vertebrates and Low Frequency Sound: Technical Report for LFA EIS

Over the past 50 years, economic and technological developments have dramatically increased the human contribution to ambient noise in the ocean. The dominant frequencies of most human-made noise in the ocean is in the low-frequency range (defined as sound energy below 1000Hz), and low-frequency sound (LFS) may travel great distances in the ocean due to the unique propagation characteristics of the deep ocean (Munk et al. 1989). For example, in the Northern Hemisphere oceans low-frequency ambient noise levels have increased by as much as 10 dB during the period from 1950 to 1975 (Urick 1986; review by NRC 1994). Shipping is the overwhelmingly dominant source of low-frequency manmade noise in the ocean, but other sources of manmade LFS including sounds from oil and gas industrial development and production activities (seismic exploration, construction work, drilling, production platforms), and scientific research (e.g., acoustic tomography and thermography, underwater communication). The SURTASS LFA system is an additional source of human-produced LFS in the ocean, contributing sound energy in the 100-500 Hz band. When considering a document that addresses the potential effects of a low-frequency sound source on the marine environment, it is important to focus upon those species that are the most likely to be affected. Important criteria are: 1) the physics of sound as it relates to biological organisms; 2) the nature of the exposure (i.e. duration, frequency, and intensity); and 3) the geographic region in which the sound source will be operated (which, when considered with the distribution of the organisms will determine which species will be exposed). The goal in this section of the LFA/EIS is to examine the status, distribution, abundance, reproduction, foraging behavior, vocal behavior, and known impacts of human activity of those species may be impacted by LFA operations. To focus our efforts, we have examined species that may be physically affected and are found in the region where the LFA source will be operated. The large-scale geographic location of species in relation to the sound source can be determined from the distribution of each species. However, the physical ability for the organism to be impacted depends upon the nature of the sound source (i.e. explosive, impulsive, or non-impulsive); and the acoustic properties of the medium (i.e. seawater) and the organism. Non-impulsive sound is comprised of the movement of particles in a medium. Motion is imparted by a vibrating object (diaphragm of a speaker, vocal chords, etc.). Due to the proximity of the particles in the medium, this motion is transmitted from particle to particle in waves away from the sound source. Because the particle motion is along the same axis as the propagating wave, the waves are longitudinal. Particles move away from then back towards the vibrating source, creating areas of compression (high pressure) and areas of rarefaction (low pressure). As the motion is transferred from one particle to the next, the sound propagates away from the sound source. Wavelength is the distance from one pressure peak to the next. Frequency is the number of waves passing per unit time (Hz). Sound velocity (not to be confused with particle velocity) is the impedance is loosely equivalent to the resistance of a medium to the passage of sound waves (technically it is the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle velocity). A high impedance means that acoustic particle velocity is small for a given pressure (low impedance the opposite). When a sound strikes a boundary between media of different impedances, both reflection and refraction, and a transfer of energy can occur. The intensity of the reflection is a function of the intensity of the sound wave and the impedances of the two media. Two key factors in determining the potential for damage due to a sound source are the intensity of the sound wave and the impedance difference between the two media (impedance mis-match). The bodies of the vast majority of organisms in the ocean (particularly phytoplankton and zooplankton) have similar sound impedence values to that of seawater. As a result, the potential for sound damage is low; organisms are effectively transparent to the sound – it passes through them without transferring damage-causing energy. Due to the considerations above, we have undertaken a detailed analysis of species which met the following criteria: 1) Is the species capable of being physically affected by LFS? Are acoustic impedence mis-matches large enough to enable LFS to have a physical affect or allow the species to sense LFS? 2) Does the proposed SURTASS LFA geographical sphere of acoustic influence overlap the distribution of the species? Species that did not meet the above criteria were excluded from consideration. For example, phytoplankton and zooplankton species lack acoustic impedance mis-matches at low frequencies to expect them to be physically affected SURTASS LFA. Vertebrates are the organisms that fit these criteria and we have accordingly focused our analysis of the affected environment on these vertebrate groups in the world’s oceans: fishes, reptiles, seabirds, pinnipeds, cetaceans, pinnipeds, mustelids, sirenians (Table 1).

Sediment Quality in Puget Sound Year 3 - Southern Puget Sound

As a component of a three-year cooperative effort of the Washington State Department of Ecology and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, surficial sediment samples from 100 locations in southern Puget Sound were collected in 1999 to determine their relative quality based on measures of toxicity, chemical contamination, and benthic infaunal assemblage structure. The survey encompassed an area of approximately 858 km2, ranging from East and Colvos Passages south to Oakland Bay, and including Hood Canal. Toxic responses were most severe in some of the industrialized waterways of Tacoma’s Commencement Bay. Other industrialized harbors in which sediments induced toxic responses on smaller scales included the Port of Olympia, Oakland Bay at Shelton, Gig Harbor, Port Ludlow, and Port Gamble. Based on the methods selected for this survey, the spatial extent of toxicity for the southern Puget Sound survey area was 0% of the total survey area for amphipod survival, 5.7% for urchin fertilization, 0.2% for microbial bioluminescence, and 5- 38% with the cytochrome P450 HRGS assay. Measurements of trace metals, PAHs, PCBs, chlorinated pesticides, other organic chemicals, and other characteristics of the sediments, indicated that 20 of the 100 samples collected had one or more chemical concentrations that exceeded applicable, effects-based sediment guidelines and/or Washington State standards. Chemical contamination was highest in eight samples collected in or near the industrialized waterways of Commencement Bay. Samples from the Thea Foss and Middle Waterways were primarily contaminated with a mixture of PAHs and trace metals, whereas those from Hylebos Waterway were contaminated with chlorinated organic hydrocarbons. The remaining 12 samples with elevated chemical concentrations primarily had high levels of other chemicals, including bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, and phenol. The characteristics of benthic infaunal assemblages in south Puget Sound differed considerably among locations and habitat types throughout the study area. In general, many of the small embayments and inlets throughout the study area had infaunal assemblages with relatively low total abundance, taxa richness, evenness, and dominance values, although total abundance values were very high in some cases, typically due to high abundance of one organism such as the polychaete Aphelochaeta sp. N1. The majority of the samples collected from passages, outer embayments, and larger bodies of water tended to have infaunal assemblages with higher total abundance, taxa richness, evenness, and dominance values. Two samples collected in the Port of Olympia near a superfund cleanup site had no living organisms in them. A weight-of-evidence approach used to simultaneously examine all three “sediment quality triad” parameters, identified 11 stations (representing 4.4 km2, 0.5% of the total study area) with sediment toxicity, chemical contamination, and altered benthos (i.e., degraded sediment quality), 36 stations (493.5 km2, 57.5% total study area) with no toxicity or chemical contamination (i.e., high sediment quality), 35 stations (274.1 km2, 32.0% total study area) with one impaired sediment triad parameter (i.e., intermediate/high sediment quality), and 18 stations (85.7km2, 10.0% total study area) with two impaired sediment parameters (i.e., intermediate/degraded quality sediments). Generally, upon comparison, the number of stations with degraded sediments based upon the sediment quality triad of data was slightly greater in the central Puget Sound than in the northern and southern Puget Sound study areas, with the percent of the total study area degraded in each region decreasing from central to north to south (2.8, 1.3 and 0.5%, respectively). Overall, the sediments collected in Puget Sound during the combined 1997-1999 surveys were among the least contaminated relative to other marine bays and estuaries studied by NOAA using equivalent methods. (PDF contains 351 pages)

Biodiversity study of Southern Biscayne Bay and Card Sound 1968-1973

A multi-disciplinary investigation was conducted in southern Biscayne Bay and Card Sound from 1968 to 1973. The purpose of the investigation was to conduct an integrated study of the ecology of southern Biscayne Bay with special emphasis on the effects of the heated effluent from the Turkey Point fossil fuel power plant, and to predict the impact of additional effluent from the planned conversion of the plant to nuclear fuel. The results of this investigation have been discussed in numerous publications. This report contains the unpublished biology data that resulted from the investigation. (PDF contains 44 pages)

Magnitude and extent of sediment toxicity in selected estuaries of South Carolina and Georgia

Toxic chemicals can enter the marine environment through numerous routes: stormwater runoff, industrial point source discharges, municipal wastewater discharges, atmospheric deposition, accidental spills, illegal dumping, pesticide applications and agricultural practices. Once they enter a receiving system, toxicants often become bound to suspended particles and increase in density sufficiently to sink to the bottom. Sediments are one of the major repositories of contaminants in aquatic envronments. Furthermore, if they become sufficiently contaminated sediments can act as sources of toxicants to important biota. Sediment quality data are direct indicators of the health of coastal aquatic habitats. Sediment quality investigations conducted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and others have indicated that toxic chemicals are found in the sediments and biota of some estuaries in South Carolina and Georgia (NOAA, 1992). This report documents the toxicity of sediments collected within five selected estuaries: Savannah River, Winyah Bay, Charleston Harbor, St. Simons Sound, and Leadenwah Creek (Figure 1). (PDF contains 292 pages)

The distribution and size composition of finfish, American lobster, and long-finned squid in Long Island Sound based on the Connecticut Fisheries Division Bottom Trawl Survey, 1984–1994

The distribution, abundance, and length composition of marine finfish, lobster, and squid in Long Island Sound were examined relative to season and physical features of the Sound, using Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection trawl survey data collected from 1984 to 1994. The following are presented: seasonal distribution maps for 59 species, abundance indices for 41 species, and length frequencies for 26 species. In addition, a broader view of habitat utilization in the Sound was examined by mapping aggregated catches (total catch per tow, demersal catch per tow, and pelagic catch per tow) and by comparing species richness and mean aggregate catch/tow by analysis of variance (ANOVA) among eight habitat types defined by depth interval and bottom type. For many individual species, seasonal migration patterns and preference for particular areas within Long Island Sound were evident. The aggregate distribution maps show that overall abundance was lower in the eastern Sound than the central and western portions. Demersal and pelagic temporal abundance show opposite trends—demersals were abundant in spring and declined through summer and fall, whereas pelagic abundance was low in spring and increased into fall. The analysis of habitat types revealed significant differences for both species richness and mean catch per tow. Generally, species richness was highest in habitats within the central area of the Sound and lowest in eastern habitats. The aggregate mean catch was highest in the western and central habitats, and declined eastward. (PDF file contains 199 pages.)

Sexual Reproduction and Early Development in the Estuarine Sea Anemone, Nematostella vectensis Stephenson, 1935

This dissertation: 1) determines the factor(s) responsible for spawning induction in NematosteJla vectensis; 2) isolates, describes, and documents the source of jelly from egg masses of N. vectensis; and 3) describes N. vectensis' early development. Namatostella vectensis were maintained on a 7-day mussel feeding/water change regime over 159 days. Within 36 hours of mussel feeding/water change. 69.1% of females and 78.5% of males spawned reliably. Through manipulation of feeding, water change, oxygen and nitrogenous waste concentrations, spawning induction was found to be triggered by the oxygen concentration associated with water change, and not by feeding. Ammonia, anemones' major waste product, inhibited this induction in a concentration-dependent manner. Female N. vectensis release eggs in a persistent jellied egg mass which is unique among the Actiniaria. The major component of this egg mass jelly was a positive periodic acid-Schiffs staining, 39.5-40.5 kD glycoprotein. Antibodies developed in rabbits against this glycoprotein bound to jelly of intact egg masses and to granules (~ 2.8 IJm in diameter) present in female anemone mesenteries and their associated filaments. Antibodies did not label male tissues. Nematostella vecfensis embryos underwent first karyokinesis -60 minutes following the addition of sperm to eggs. Second nuclear division took place, followed by first cleavage, 90-120 minutes later. Each of the 4 blastomeres that resulted from first cleavage contained a single nucleus. Arrangement of these blastomeres ranged from radial to pseudospiral. Embryonic development was both asynchronous and holoblastic. Following formation of the 4-cell stage, 71% of embryos proceeded to cleave again to form an 8-cell stage. In each of the remaining 29% of embryos, a fusion of from 2-4 blastomeres resulted in 4 possible patterns which had no affect on either cleavage interval timing or subsequent development. The fusion event was not due to ooplasmic segregation. Blastomeres isolated from 4-celled embryos were regulative and developed into normal planula larvae and juvenile anemones that were 1/4 the size of those that developed from intact 4-celled embryos. Embryos exhibiting the fusion phenomenon were examined at the fine structural level. The fusion phenomenon resulted in formation of a secondary syncytium and was not a mere compaction of blastomeres.

Control of California sea lion predation of winter-run steelhead at the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks, Seattle, December 1985-April 1986 with observations on sea lion abundance and distribution in Puget Sound

A study/predation control program was conducted at the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks in Seattle, Washington from 20 December through 23 April 1986. The principal objectives were to document the rate and effects of predation on winter-run steelhead (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) by California sea lions (Zalophus californianus); to control and minimize predation in order to increase the escapement of wild winter-runs to the Lake Washington watershed; to evaluate and recommend potential long term procedures for control of steelhead predation; and to document the abundance and distribution of California sea lions in Puget Sound.

Photographic database development of Nigerian fisheries: a complementary source of information documentation

The paper traces the history of the different documentation media used for information dissemination. Such early media are clay tablets, papyrus, and vellum or parchment codex. The invention of printing however revolutionized the information industry, enabling the production of books in multiple copies. Photography came into documentation mainly to preserve rare materials and those that easily deteriorate. This paper reports the efforts of National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research (NIFFR) and Kainji Lake Fisheries Promotion Project (KLFPPP), Nigeria, to develop an Object Oriented Database (OOD) using photographs. The photographs are stored in digitized form on commercial computers, using the program ACDSee 32 for classification, description and retrieval. Specifically the paper focuses on photographs in fisheries as visual communication and expression. Presently, the database contains photo documents about the following aspects of Kainji Lake fisheries: fishing gears and crafts, fish preservation methods

Studies on the nutritional value of cassava (Manihot utillisima) peels as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry fed in indoor glass aquaria

This study, though, has as its core objective cost reduction in aquaculture nutrition was equally designed to investigate the value of the peels of cassava (Manihot utillisima) as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry. Three levels of cassava peels diet and a control (100% yellow maize in the carbohydrate mixture) was prepared and tested on O. niloticus fry for ten (10) weeks. The fry with mean weight of 0.32g were grouped fifteen (15) in each of the glass aquaria measuring 60x30x30cm with a maximum capacity of 52 litres of water. The fry were fed twice daily at 10% biomass. Weekly, the fry were weighed to determine the weight increment or otherwise and the quality of feed adjusted accordingly. Water quality parameters like temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (D.0) were monitored and found to be at desirable level. DT 3 (97 % cassava peels and 3% yellow maize) in the carbohydrate mixture gave the best growth performance. The fry fed, this diet gained mean weight of 1.18g for the period of the experiment. However, the poorest performance in terms of growth was from fry fed the control diet (100%yellow maize in the carbohydrate mixture) fry fed this diet gained mean weight of 0.80 for the duration of the experiment. Analysis of the various growth indices like SGR, PER, FCR and NPU shows that DT3 was the overall best diet with an SGR value of2.40 and FCR of 43.83. However, DT 1 (70% cassava peels and 30% yellow maize) gave the poorest SGR of 1.61 and FCR of 67.58. The difference in weight gain among the fry fed the three levels of cassava peels diet and the control was not statically significant (P>0.05)

An investigation into the value of yam (Dioscorea rotundata) peels as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry fed in indoor glass aquaria

The study was designed to investigate the value of the peels of yam (Dioscorea rotundata) as energy source in the diet of Oreochromis niloticus fry and to investigate the level of inclusion of this peels that will give optimum growth performance. Four diets, three levels of yam peels and a control, was prepared and tested on O. niloticus fry (mean weight of 0.27g) for ten weeks. Fifteen (15) O. niloticus fry were grouped in each of the glass aquaria, measuring 60x30x3Ocm and with a maximum capacity of 52 liters of water. The fry were fed twice daily at 10% biomass. The fry were weighed weekly to determine weight increment or otherwise and the quality of feed was adjusted accordingly. DTl (70% yam peels and 30% yellow maize) in the carbohydrate mixture gave the best performance. The fry fed this diet, gained a mean weight of 1.20g for the period of the experiment. The poorest performance in terms of growth was from fry fed the control diet (100% yellow maize in the carbohydrate mixture). Fry fed this diet gained mean weight of 0.80g for the duration of the experiment. Analysis of the various growth indices like SGR, PER, FCR and NPU shows that DTl was the overall best diet with an SGR value of I. 92 and FCR of 54.10. The difference in weight gain by fry fed the three levels of yam peels diet and the control diet (100% yellow maize) was not statistically significant (P>0.05)

Policy analysis of shoreline restoration options on private shorelines of Puget Sound

Puget Sound shorelines have historically provided a diversity of habitats that support a variety of aquatic resources throughout the region. These valued natural resources are iconic to the region and remain central to both the economic vitality and community appreciation of Puget Sound. Deterioration of upland and nearshore shoreline habitats, have placed severe stress on many aquatic resources within the region (PSAT, 2007). Since a majority of Washington State shorelines are privately owned, regulatory authority to legislate restoration on private property is limited in scope and frequency. Washington States’ Shoreline Management Act (RCW 90.58) requires local jurisdictions to plan for appropriate future shoreline uses. Under the Act, future development can be regulated to protect existing ecological functions, but lost functions cannot be restored without purchase or compensation of restored areas. Therefore, questions remains as to the ecological resilience of the region when considering cumulative effect of existing/ongoing shoreline development constrained by limited shoreline restoration opportunities. In light of these questions, this analysis will explore opportunities to promote restoration on privately owned shorelines within Puget Sound. These efforts are intended to promote more efficient ecosystem management and improve ecosystem-wide ecological functions. From an economics perspective, results of past shoreline management can generally be characterized as both market and government failure in effectively protecting the publics’ interest in maintaining healthy shoreline resources. Therefore coastal development has proceeded in spite of negative externalities and market imbalances resulting in inefficient resource management driven by the individual ambitions of private shoreline property owners to develop their property to their highest and best use. Federally derived property rights will protect continuation of existing uses along privately owned shorelines; therefore, a fundamental challenge remains in sustainable management of existing shoreline resources while also restoring ecological functions lost to past mistakes in an effort to increase the ecologic resiliency within the region. (PDF contains 5 pages)

Physical circulation measurements in Pamlico Sound, used to locate new oyster sanctuaries

The population of eastern oyster, C. virginica, has declined over the last century on most areas of the east and gulf coasts. North Carolina’s restoration efforts depend on the construction of subtidal oyster reefs to be used as broodstock sanctuaries in Pamlico Sound, NC. Successful restoration of the oyster population requires several thriving reefs connected as a meta-population. C. virginica has a 2-3 week larval stage, during which it gradually settles through the water column. Larvae that can travel from one reef to another during that stage form the basis of a meta-population. (PDF contains 3 pages)

Eliciting and using stakeholder input to guide Puget Sound nearshore restoration decisionmaking

The goal of the Puget Sound Nearshore Ecosystem Restoration Project (PSNERP) is to improve system-wide functionality of nearshorei ecosystem processes. To achieve that goal, PSNERP plans to strategically restore nearshore sites throughout Puget Sound. PSNERP scientists are assessing changes to the nearshore, and will recommend an environmentally strategic restoration portfolio. Yet, PSNERP also needs stakeholder input to design a socially strategic portfolio. This research investigates the values and preferences of stakeholders in the Whidbey Sub-Basin of Puget Sound to help PSNERP be both socially and environmentally strategic. This investigation may be repeated in the six other Puget Sound Sub-Basins. The results will guide restoration portfolio design and future stakeholder involvement activities. This study examines four areas of stakeholder values and preferences: 1) beliefs about the causes, solutions, and severity of nearshore problems; 2) priorities for nearshore features, shoreforms, developments, and restoration objectives; 3) thoughts about ecosystem servicesiii and trade-offs among them; and 4) visions of a future, restored Puget Sound nearshore and the role of science in attaining this vision. The study is framed by two hypotheses from the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF), which suggests that groups of policy advocates form around shared “policy core beliefs” which can transcend traditional categories of stakeholders.(PDF contains 3 pages)

Organic detritus and its role as a food source in chalk streams

This review deals with the variation in populations of invertebrates and the relationships between invertebrate production and detrital food material in chalk streams. The total quantity of detrital material processed by invertebrate consumers is many times greater than the production of these consumers. The amount of detritus ingested each year by chalk stream invertebrates may well be similar to the annual input of autochthonous primary production plus that from allochthonous tree cover.