Biodiversity in drinking water distribution systems:a brief review

In drinking water distribution systems, three groups of living organisms are usually found in the biofilm and circulating water: heterotrophic bacteria, free-living protozoa, and macro-invertebrates. Indirect evidence suggests that protozoa grazing in distribution systems can partially eliminate biomass production and accidental microbiological pollution. This paper examines the biodiversit in drinking water distribution systems.

Fat and water distribution patterns in the flesh of the common cat-fish Wallago attu (Bl. & Schn.)

The quantitative distributional pattern of fat and water has been studied in the flesh of the various zones corresponding to the dorsal and ventral regions of the body of a common cat-fish, Wallago attu. The ventral aspect of the body showed more accumulation of fat than the dorsal aspect. The fat content in the ventral region also exhibited an increase from the anterior to the posterior zones. In the dorsal region, however, the back portion of the body, behind the dorsal fin, generally possessed low fat content. On an average, the highest fat accumulation was observed in the caudal peduncle region. The distribution of water followed an almost opposite pattern of distribution, indicating an inverse relationship with fat.

Persistence of viable but non-culturable bacteria during the production and distribution of drinking water

The direct measurement of in situ respiring bacteria using 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) shows that, especially for Gram-negative bacteria, large numbers of viable but non-culturable (VBNC) bacteria are present in finished water from a conventional water treatment plant, and the regrowth of bacteria along distribution networks can be seen rapidly by using this very sensitive technique. The level of bacterial inactivation with chlorine is much less important than has been previously supposed (based on experiments with non-injured laboratory strains of bacteria and classical culture techniques). Threshold values of VBNC bacteria leaving water treatment plants or regrowing along distribution systems have to be determined for better control of coliform regrowth and health- risks associated with the consumption of drinking water.

The health significance of heterotrophic bacteria in drinking water

Tap water is not sterile; it contains organisms which grow in water distribution systems or inside taps and their fittings. The absence of known pathogenic bacteria is assured by the absence of the indicator organisms but concerns have been raised in the past few years that drinking water fulfilling the standards laid down in the EC Directive ECC 80/778 may still cause disease. These concerns have arisen from several sources: the fact that a cause has been identified in only half of all suspected waterborne outbreaks of disease; reports have suggested that heterotrophic bacteria possessing single pathogenic mechanisms such as haemolysin may cause disease; reports of heterotrophic organisms causing water contact diseases in hospitals. These concerns led to a reappraisal of the pathogenic potential of heteretrophic bacteria, by carrying out an extensive literature search and review commissioned by the UK Water Research Company. This research identified many papers showing an association between drinking water and heterotrophic bacteria but only very few reports of suspected waterborne disease associated with the heterotrophs. The organisms demonstrating potential to cause disease were species of Aeromonas and Yersinia, but typing of organisms identified in patients and isolated from the water revealed very few similarities. The potential of Aeromonas and Yersinia to cause waterborne disease is thought to be very low and the Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre database of laboratory infections due to these two genera of organisms was analysed to produce population-related incidences for each health region in England and Wales. Additionally a laboratory questionnaire revealed different levels of ascertainment of these two organisms in different laboratories of the Public Health Laboratory Service.

NOAA Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP): Guidance for Regional Implementation

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: The Coastal Change Analysis Programl (C-CAP) is developing a nationally standardized database on landcover and habitat change in the coastal regions of the United States. C-CAP is part of the Estuarine Habitat Program (EHP) of NOAA's Coastal Ocean Program (COP). C-CAP inventories coastal submersed habitats, wetland habitats, and adjacent uplands and monitors changes in these habitats on a one- to five-year cycle. This type of information and frequency of detection are required to improve scientific understanding of the linkages of coastal and submersed wetland habitats with adjacent uplands and with the distribution, abundance, and health of living marine resources. The monitoring cycle will vary according to the rate and magnitude of change in each geographic region. Satellite imagery (primarily Landsat Thematic Mapper), aerial photography, and field data are interpreted, classified, analyzed, and integrated with other digital data in a geographic information system (GIS). The resulting landcover change databases are disseminated in digital form for use by anyone wishing to conduct geographic analysis in the completed regions. C-CAP spatial information on coastal change will be input to EHP conceptual and predictive models to support coastal resource policy planning and analysis. CCAP products will include 1) spatially registered digital databases and images, 2) tabular summaries by state, county, and hydrologic unit, and 3) documentation. Aggregations to larger areas (representing habitats, wildlife refuges, or management districts) will be provided on a case-by-case basis. Ongoing C-CAP research will continue to explore techniques for remote determination of biomass, productivity, and functional status of wetlands and will evaluate new technologies (e.g. remote sensor systems, global positioning systems, image processing algorithms) as they become available. Selected hardcopy land-cover change maps will be produced at local (1:24,000) to regional scales (1:500,000) for distribution. Digital land-cover change data will be provided to users for the cost of reproduction. Much of the guidance contained in this document was developed through a series of professional workshops and interagency meetings that focused on a) coastal wetlands and uplands; b) coastal submersed habitat including aquatic beds; c) user needs; d) regional issues; e) classification schemes; f) change detection techniques; and g) data quality. Invited participants included technical and regional experts and representatives of key State and Federal organizations. Coastal habitat managers and researchers were given an opportunity for review and comment. This document summarizes C-CAP protocols and procedures that are to be used by scientists throughout the United States to develop consistent and reliable coastal change information for input to the C-CAP nationwide database. It also provides useful guidelines for contributors working on related projects. It is considered a working document subject to periodic review and revision.(PDF file contains 104 pages.)

Immunodetection of planktonic algae

Interest in the identification and characterisation of cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates in aquatic environments is increasing rapidly due to the perceived roles of these organisms in primary production and nuisance aspects in terms of water treatment and public health. Techniques for the identification and quantification of these organisms currently are limited, and the application of molecular approaches provides fundamental taxonomic information and techniques of practical value. Antigenic properties of algal cells may be useful taxonomic markers. Immunodetection techniques utilise the specificity of the antibody/antigen association as a probe for recognising and distinguishing between microorganisms according to their cell- surface chemistry. Immunofluorescent detection of unicellular cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates has been studied with success in marine and freshwater ecosystems and a range of techniques and results are presented and discussed. The most recent advances in the study of planktonic algae have come with the application of continuous flow cytometric methods (CFC). Flow cytometry makes use of the autofluorescence properties of the algal cells, which alone can be used to demonstrate their presence and permit their quantification in natural water samples. When used in conjunction with immunolabelling techniques, the potential of CFC analysis is broadened to study the serological/strain composition of plankters in natural populations. Changes in algal strains represented within and between waters over periods of time are reported and discussed, along with the ecological issues thus raised.

Electrical phase angle as a new method to measure fish condition

In this study, phase angle (the ratio of resistance and reactance of tissue to applied electrical current) is presented as a possible new method to measure fish condition. Condition indices for fish have historically been based on simple weight-at-length relationships, or on costly and timeconsuming laboratory procedures that measure specific physiological parameters. Phase angle is introduced to combine the simplicity of a quick field-based measurement with the specificity of laboratory analysis by directly measuring extra- and intracellular water distribution within an organism, which is indicative of its condition. Phase angle, which can be measured in the field or laboratory in the time it takes to measure length and weight, was measured in six species of fish at different states (e.g., fed vs. fasted, and postmortem) and under different environmental treatments (wild vs. hatchery, winter vs. spring). Phase angle reflected different states of condition. Phase angles <15° indicated fish in poor condition, and phase angles >15° indicated fish that were in better condition. Phase angle was slightly affected by temperatures (slope = – 0.19) in the 0–8°C range and did not change in fish placed on ice for <12 hours. Phase angle also decreased over time in postmortem fish because of cell membrane degradation and subsequent water movement from intra- to extracellular (interstitial) spaces. Phase angle also reflected condition of specific anatomical locations within the fish.

Population structure of island-associated dolphins: evidence from photo-identification of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the main Hawaiian Islands

Management agencies often use geopolitical boundaries as proxies for biological boundaries. In Hawaiian waters a single stock is recognized of common bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, a species that is found both in open water and near-shore among the main Hawaiian Islands. To assess population structure, we photo-identified 336 distinctive individuals from the main Hawaiian Islands, from 2000 to 2006. Their generally shallow-water distribution, and numerous within-year and between-year resightings within island areas suggest that individuals are resident to the islands, rather than part of an offshore population moving through the area. Comparisons of identifications obtained from Kaua‘i/Ni‘ihau, O‘ahu, the “4-island area,” and the island of Hawai‘i showed no evidence of movements among these island groups, although movements from Kaua‘i to Ni‘ihau and among the “4-islands” were documented. A Bayesian analysis examining the probability of missing movements among island groups, given our sample sizes for different areas, indicates that interisland movement rates are less than 1% per year with 95% probability. Our results suggest the existence of multiple demographically independent populations of island-associated common bottlenose dolphins around the main Hawaiian islands.

Characterizing Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico: a watershed modeling analysis and monitoring plan

Land-based pollution is commonly identified as a major contributor to the observed deterioration of shallow-water coral reef ecosystem health. Human activity on the coastal landscape often induces nutrient enrichment, hypoxia, harmful algal blooms, toxic contamination and other stressors that have degraded the quality of coastal waters. Coral reef ecosystems throughout Puerto Rico, including Jobos Bay, are under threat from coastal land uses such as urban development, industry and agriculture. The objectives of this report were two-fold: 1. To identify potentially harmful land use activities to the benthic habitats of Jobos Bay, and 2. To describe a monitoring plan for Jobos Bay designed to assess the impacts of conservation practices implemented on the watershed. This characterization is a component of the partnership between the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) established by the Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) in Jobos Bay. CEAP is a multi-agency effort to quantify the environmental benefits of conservation practices used by private landowners participating in USDA programs. The Jobos Bay watershed, located in southeastern Puerto Rico, was selected as the first tropical CEAP Special Emphasis Watershed (SEW). Both USDA and NOAA use their respective expertise in terrestrial and marine environments to model and monitor Jobos Bay resources. This report documents NOAA activities conducted in the first year of the three-year CEAP effort in Jobos Bay. Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of the project and background information on Jobos Bay and its watershed. Chapter 2 implements NOAA’s Summit to Sea approach to summarize the existing resource conditions on the watershed and in the estuary. Summit to Sea uses a GIS-based procedure that links patterns of land use in coastal watersheds to sediment and pollutant loading predictions at the interface between terrestrial and marine environments. The outcome of Summit to Sea analysis is an inventory of coastal land use and predicted pollution threats, consisting of spatial data and descriptive statistics, which allows for better management of coral reef ecosystems. Chapters 3 and 4 describe the monitoring plan to assess the ecological response to conservation practices established by USDA on the watershed. Jobos Bay is the second largest estuary in Puerto Rico, but has more than three times the shoreline of any other estuarine area on the island. It is a natural harbor protected from offshore wind and waves by a series of mangrove islands and the Punta Pozuelo peninsula. The Jobos Bay marine ecosystem includes 48 km² of mangrove, seagrass, coral reef and other habitat types that span both intertidal and subtidal areas. Mapping of Jobos Bay revealed 10 different benthic habitats of varying prevalence, and a large area of unknown bottom type covering 38% of the entire bay. Of the known benthic habitats, submerged aquatic vegetation, primarily seagrass, is the most common bottom type, covering slightly less than 30% of the bay. Mangroves are the dominant shoreline feature, while coral reefs comprise only 4% of the total benthic habitat. However, coral reefs are some of the most productive habitats found in Jobos Bay, and provide important habitat and nursery grounds for fish and invertebrates of commercial and recreational value.