Report of the 2004 Workshop on In Situ Iron Enrichment Experiments in the Eastern and Western Subarctic Pacific

Foreword 1. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES (pdf, 0.1 Mb) 2. 2004 WORKSHOP SUMMARY (pdf, < 0.1 Mb) 2.1. What have we learned from the enrichment experiments? 2.2 What are the outstanding questions? 2.3 Recommendations for SEEDS-II 3. EXTENDED ABSTRACTS OF THE 2004 WORKSHOP 3.1 Synthesis of the Iron Enrichment Experiments: SEEDS and SERIES (pdf, 0.5 Mb) Iron fertilization experiment in the western subarctic Pacific (SEEDS) by Atsushi Tsuda The response of N and Si to iron enrichment in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Results from SERIES by David Timothy, C.S. Wong, Yukihiro Nojiri, Frank A. Whitney, W. Keith Johnson and Janet Barwell-Clarke 3.2 Biological and Physiological Responses (pdf, 0.2 Mb) Zooplankton responses during SEEDS by Hiroaki Saito Phytoplankton community response to iron and temperature gradient in the NW and NE subarctic Pacific Ocean by Isao Kudo, Yoshifumi Noiri, Jun Nishioka, Hiroshi Kiyosawa and Atsushi Tsuda SERIES: Copepod grazing on diatoms by Frank A. Whitney, Moira Galbraith, Janet Barwell-Clarke and Akash Sastri The Southern Ocean Iron Enrichment Experiment: The nitrogen uptake response by William P. Cochlan and Raphael M. Kudela 3.3 Biogeochemical Responses (pdf, 0.5 Mb) What have we learned regarding iron biogeochemistry from iron enrichment experiments? by Jun Nishioka, Shigenobu Takeda and W. Keith Johnson Iron dynamics and temporal changes of iron speciation in SERIES by W. Keith Johnson, C.S. Wong, Nes Sutherland and Jun Nishioka Dissolved organic matter dynamics during SEEDS and SERIES experiments by Takeshi Yoshimura and Hiroshi Ogawa Formation of transparent exopolymer particles during the in-situ iron enrichment experiment in the western subarctic Pacific (SEEDS) by Shigenobu Takeda, Neelam Ramaiah, Ken Furuya and Takeshi Yoshimura Atmospheric measurement by Mitsuo Uematsu 3.4 Prediction from Models (pdf, 0.3 Mb) Modelling iron limitation in the North Pacific by Kenneth L. Denman and M. Angelica Peña A proposed model of the SERIES iron fertilization patch by Debby Ianson, Christoph Voelker and Kenneth L. Denman 4. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS FOR THE 2004 WORKSHOP (pdf, < 0.1 Mb) APPENDIX 1 Report of the 2000 Planning Workshop on Designing the Iron Fertilization Experiment in the Subarctic Pacific (pdf, 1 Mb) APPENDIX 2 Terms of Reference for the Advisory Panel on Iron fertilization experiment in the subarctic Pacific Ocean (pdf, < 0.1 Mb) APPENDIX 3 Historical List of Advisory Panel Members on Iron fertilization experiment in the subarctic Pacific Ocean (pdf, < 0.1 Mb) APPENDIX 4 IFEP-AP Annual Reports (pdf, 0.1 Mb) APPENDIX 5 PICES Press Articles (pdf, 0.6 Mb) (194 page document)

Eggs, Larvae and Young of The Striped Bass, Roccus saxatilis

Detailed descriptions of the early development of the striped bass, Roccus saxitilis (Walbaum), with emphasis on variation in size and morphology, sequence of fin formation, changes in body form, and attainment of the full complement of maristic numbers, are presented and illustrated for the first time. The egg is spherical, transparent, non-adhesive and relatively large. It is pelagic and buoyant, although it sinks in quiet fresh water. When unfertilized, it averages 1.3 mm, in diameter, but is 3.4 mm. when fertilized and water-hardened. The granular yolk sac, green when alive and whitish-yellow when preserved, averages 1.2 mm., and the single amber-colored oil globule is about 0.6 mm. in diameter. Newly hatched striped bass prolarvae, which range from 2.9-3.7 mm. in total length, are relatively undeveloped and nearly transparent, with no mouth opening, unpigmented eyes, and a greatly enlarged yolk sac with the large oil globule projecting beyond the head. When 5-6 mm. long the yolk sac and oil globule are assimilated and the postlarvae I show advanced development of the internal anatomy. Although the fish is still transparent, scattered melanophores are found on the head and body and chromatophores in the eyes and the ventro-posterior edge of the body. Postlarvae transform to young between 7 and 10 mm. in length when the finfolds are lost except in the dorsal, anal and caudal regions. The largest fish in this group possess a well-formed skeleton with a full complement of 25 vertebrae. Between 10 and 20 mm. in length all fish are fully transformed, muscular tissue renders most of the internal structure obscure, and the myotomes, which generally correspond in number with the vertebrae, are no longer visible. At fish lengths of 20-30 mm. scales are found on all specimens, and with the exception of the pectoral fin-rays, a full complement of meristic structures is present in all other fins. At this stage the body is pigmented uniformly with small spots. Linear regressions between several dependent variables and the , independent variable of standard length indicate that the rate of development of head, eye. and snout to anus lengths is proportional to the length of the larvae and young. Body depth and standard length are non-linear among newly-hatched larvae. Hatchery-reared striped bass demonstrated a slow rate of growth, and were regarded as "stunted," when compared to growth rates observed in another study and field collections. Observations were also made on abnormal eggs and teratological larvae and young. Blue-sac disease is tentatively identified and described for the first time in larvae and pugnosed larvae and young are also described for the first time in striped bass.

A study of flow conditions near the substratum in an experimental channel [Translation from: Verhandlungen der Internationalen Vereinigung fur Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 18, 718-725, 1972]

In a slow flow, on a smooth uniform substratum, a limited bed allows the existence of currents slow enough for benthic invertebrates. These conditions rarely occur naturally. The investigations carried out in this work aimed, on an intermediary scale, to define the influence of irregularities in the substratum on flow near the bottom. The substrata used were made of glass marbles. The investigations were carried out in a transparent channel of 70 cm in length and a rectangular section 10 x 5 cm. The data was analysed to study the general evolution of flow in terms of average speeds and the appearance of the turbulence near the bottom.

Development and growth of hatchery-reared larval Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus)

Although the Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) is a prime candidate for aquaculture, the problematic production of juveniles remains a major impediment to commercial culture of this species. In order to improve the understanding of larval development and to refine hatchery production techniques, this study was conducted to characterize development and growth of Florida pompano from hatching through metamorphosis by using digital photography and image analysis. Newly hatched larvae were transparent and had a large, elongate yolk sac and single oil globule. The lower and upper jaws as well as the digestive tract were not fully developed at hatching. Rotifers were observed in the stomach of larvae at three days after hatching (DAH), and Artemia spp. were observed in the stomach of larvae at 14 DAH. Growth rates calculated from total length measurements were 0.22 ±0.04, 0.23 ±0.12, and 0.35 ±0.09 mm/d for each of the larval rearing trials. The mouth gape of larvae was 0.266 ±0.075 mm at first feeding and increased with a growth rate of 0.13 ± 0.04 mm/d. Predicted values for optimal prey sizes ranged from 80 to 130 μm at 3 DAH, 160 to 267 μm at 5 DAH, and 454 to 757 μm at 10 DAH. Based on the findings of this study, a refined feeding regime was developed to provide stage- and size-specific guidelines for feeding Florida pompano larvae reared under hatchery con

Vertical temperature structure of 250 m. water layer around Sri Lanka at the tail-end of the north-east monsoon

Data collected during cruises of the Hoyo Maru in Jan-Mar 1975 are analysed. Data is tabulated to show vertical temp profile, surface water temp and temp gradient. Each of these features is discussed. Thermoclines are shown to be established off the coast of India, their depth varying according to time of year. Upwelling off the Cochin coast is discussed. This occurs during Oct-Nov. Surface temp is considerably influenced by the north-east monsoon. The 'clockwise current' (or 'transparent current) characterised by high salinity, high transparency, and rich nutrient conchs, and which prevails in Jan-May brings oceanic water into the Bay of Bengal and sweeps along the Ceylon coast.

Development of intermediate moisture marinated fish product and its storage characteristics

An attempt was made to prepare an intermediate moisture (around 44% moisture) marinated (pH around 4) fish product. Fillets from Sciaenid fish (each fish weighing 70-80 gm) were dipped in a solution containing 7% acetic acid, 20% common salt and 1% propionic acid for 2 hours. After soaking, the soaked fillets were partially dried to about 44% moisture. Three effective hurdles like low pH (by using 7% acetic add and 1% propionic acid), low water activity (by using 20% salt and partially drying the fillets) and preservative (1% propionic add), were used to prepare a shelf-stable product at room temperature. The dried product was sprayed with 0.0 5% BHA in 50% alcohol and further dried for 10 minutes to remove added water and alcohol, thereby another hurdle (preservative) against fat oxidation. The product was packed in 300 gauge polythene bags and stored in transparent screw cap plastic jars. Fortnightly samples were drawn and subjected to biochemical, bacteriological and organoleptic evaluation to study its storage characteristics. The product was in good acceptable form up to 4 months at ambient temperature. The product needed one hour soaking in water with two changes of water in between to make it free from excess salt and acid smell.

Biology and farming of the green mussel Mytilus smaragdinus

Biological investigations were carried out in Sapian Bay, Capiz from November 1975 to December 1976 with samplings conducted fortnightly. Histological studies on the gonad reveal a high percentage of ripe and spent females during the month of April and May, and ripe to near ripe during November to December. However, larval counts were highest on February 25, 1976 with 253 mytilid larvae per haul compared to 0-79 per haul during all other months. The high larval count was followed by the highest spat settlement during the next sampling period two weeks later, with the spat collector set in the water during the February 25 sampling. The four materials tested, blue polypropylene fiber rope, black polypropylene fiber, and coir rope, all had their highest spat counts during this period with an average of 471 spats per standard 10 cm rope piece. The range during the other time periods is 2-283 spats. Of the 4 materials tested, the black fibrillated polypropylene film had the highest larval counts in 15 out of a total of 25 sampling periods. The blue rope was the poorest spat collector. Coconut husk was tested later on and it proved to have a very high catchability, with spats completely enveloping the husk surface. Growth monitored from one cohort in Sapian Bay averaged 10 mm per month. 50-60 mm is considered marketable size. Trial growth experiments with transplanted mussels were also conducted at Igang Bay in Guimaras Island, Makato River in Aklan, and a milkfish pond in Leganes, Iloilo. Survival in Igang was less than 50% after the second week, and the condition of the surviving mussels can be described only as 'watery' with the mantle completely transparent. Mortality was minimal in Makato but the growth rate was only 30% that of Sapian Bay. The pond experiments were terminated due to severe crab predation.

Embryonic and larval development of Mystus gulio (Ham.)

Mystus gulio eggs are strongly adhesive and contain relatively small yolk (0.75-1.0 mm). The egg envelop is thick and transparent. First cleavage (two cells), four cells, eight cells, sixteen cells and multi cells stages were found 20, 25, 35-40, 60 and 70 minutes after fertilization, respectively. The morula stage was visualized within 1.5 h after fertilization. The heart beat visible and the circulatory system commenced after 16 h of fertilization. Embryos hatched 18-20h after activation of egg. The newly hatched larva measured 2.82±0.03 mm in length and 0.32±0.06 mg in weight. The yolk sac was fully absorbed by the third day though larvae commenced exogenous feeding even before completion of yolk absorption. A 5-day old post larva began wandering in search of food. Ten-day old post larvae endowed with eight branched rays in dorsal fin and seven in caudal fin. Fifteen-day old post larvae had the pectm:al spine become stout though the embryonic fin folds had to be disappeared. The length of fingerlings ranged from 25-30 mm after 30 days, and their external features were just like those of an adult except that they were not sexually matured.

An ecosystem characterisation of the Bay of Bengal

This study summarises the high level drivers on ecological systems of the BOBLME. The ecological characterisation resulted in the identification of 29 subsystems. The report recommends the development of fully integrated approaches that considers human needs and the ecological system, involving stakeholders in a transparent way.

Biology and distribution of grouper (Epinephelus coioides) in province waters (Abadan Bhrakan)

This survay has been done from Januray 2000 till May 2002 in Khouzestan costal waters. Four species of grouper were identified from which orange spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) was the dominant species. For studing environmental parameters and reproductive biology, age, growth parameters and mortality rate samples were collected by fishing ship. Samples were taken montly in 4 days by fishing traps and trawls. In addition, some samples were obtained from Khozestan fish landing centres. Environmental factors such as PH, 02, salinity, water temperature and depth of traping areas, were measured. To identify species, morphometric characteries of 452 individal fishes were measured. Stomach contents of 394 fish were has survaid, from which stomach of 226 fish, and 168 fish had empty stomachs. Percentage of empty stomachs (cv) in males was more than females. Food items found in 73 percent of stomach were crab (11%), shrimps (8.8%) , squids (3.9%), gastropods (17%) and bivalves (0.4%). Feeding intensity in year classes did not obay logic trends The importance relatively indicator (I.R.I) were 81, 9.9, 4, 1.5 and 0.3 percent for fish, crab, shrimp, squid, gastropod and bivalve respectively. For age determination, sagita otoliths of 450 fish were taken and countable sections were obtained from 425 specimens. Relative frequency distribution of opaque and transparent rings showed that each opaque growth ring generates once a year from November to September. It seemed that generation of opaque rings is affected by temperature and photoperiod changes. Correlation between length and age was calculated using Von Bertalanffy's least square method. Following equasion was obtaind: L(t) : 122.27 (1 e 0.146 (t+0.482)) Growth parameters were determined through by Ford Walford equasion and Response Surface and Shepherd subcommands in Elefan program and L00 and K amounts were have determined. Correlation between length and age of 635 fish was determined by gender . Length and age correlation was calculated by exponential model and between total length and standard length by straghit line model. Correlation between age and weight of sagita was calculated by total length and age. The most Correlation was between sagita weight and fish age (r=0.876). Total mortality rate (z) was estimated by Length Converthed Method , Jones and Vanzaling and Powel Wetherall. Total mortality rate was z=0.39. Natural mortality rate, using Pauly method was calculated M=0.32. Fishing mortality (F) was 0.08. Gonads of 425 fishes were surveid within 18 month, from which 363 were female, 46 were male and 16 were sex reversing individuals .Total length of females varied from 26 to 95.5 centimeters while males length varied from 56.5 to 107 centimeters. Sex reversing individuals had a length of 47.5 centimeters, when two years old and 62.5 centimeters at age of 3 years. From the mentioned 425 fish, 401 individuals were matured, containing 339 females and 62 males, 5.47 females against each male. Montly changes of Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) by total body weight and standard length and total body length showed that this index increases from march to May and maximum increase was in May . This experiment was adapted in spawning season. Potential, relative, and absoulate fecundity was estimated by counting eggs in three samples. Total amount of traped fish using special traps was 16182.18 kg from which Epinephelus coioides provided catching 15353.43 kg of it (91.27 %) and By catch was 141.18 kg (8.24 %). Total average CPUE for whole catch was 123.33 kg/day/vessel. Total amount of catch was estimated 232.04 tons, considering CPUE of total catch and total Khuzestan trap ships effort.

Marine Vertebrates and Low Frequency Sound: Technical Report for LFA EIS

Over the past 50 years, economic and technological developments have dramatically increased the human contribution to ambient noise in the ocean. The dominant frequencies of most human-made noise in the ocean is in the low-frequency range (defined as sound energy below 1000Hz), and low-frequency sound (LFS) may travel great distances in the ocean due to the unique propagation characteristics of the deep ocean (Munk et al. 1989). For example, in the Northern Hemisphere oceans low-frequency ambient noise levels have increased by as much as 10 dB during the period from 1950 to 1975 (Urick 1986; review by NRC 1994). Shipping is the overwhelmingly dominant source of low-frequency manmade noise in the ocean, but other sources of manmade LFS including sounds from oil and gas industrial development and production activities (seismic exploration, construction work, drilling, production platforms), and scientific research (e.g., acoustic tomography and thermography, underwater communication). The SURTASS LFA system is an additional source of human-produced LFS in the ocean, contributing sound energy in the 100-500 Hz band. When considering a document that addresses the potential effects of a low-frequency sound source on the marine environment, it is important to focus upon those species that are the most likely to be affected. Important criteria are: 1) the physics of sound as it relates to biological organisms; 2) the nature of the exposure (i.e. duration, frequency, and intensity); and 3) the geographic region in which the sound source will be operated (which, when considered with the distribution of the organisms will determine which species will be exposed). The goal in this section of the LFA/EIS is to examine the status, distribution, abundance, reproduction, foraging behavior, vocal behavior, and known impacts of human activity of those species may be impacted by LFA operations. To focus our efforts, we have examined species that may be physically affected and are found in the region where the LFA source will be operated. The large-scale geographic location of species in relation to the sound source can be determined from the distribution of each species. However, the physical ability for the organism to be impacted depends upon the nature of the sound source (i.e. explosive, impulsive, or non-impulsive); and the acoustic properties of the medium (i.e. seawater) and the organism. Non-impulsive sound is comprised of the movement of particles in a medium. Motion is imparted by a vibrating object (diaphragm of a speaker, vocal chords, etc.). Due to the proximity of the particles in the medium, this motion is transmitted from particle to particle in waves away from the sound source. Because the particle motion is along the same axis as the propagating wave, the waves are longitudinal. Particles move away from then back towards the vibrating source, creating areas of compression (high pressure) and areas of rarefaction (low pressure). As the motion is transferred from one particle to the next, the sound propagates away from the sound source. Wavelength is the distance from one pressure peak to the next. Frequency is the number of waves passing per unit time (Hz). Sound velocity (not to be confused with particle velocity) is the impedance is loosely equivalent to the resistance of a medium to the passage of sound waves (technically it is the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle velocity). A high impedance means that acoustic particle velocity is small for a given pressure (low impedance the opposite). When a sound strikes a boundary between media of different impedances, both reflection and refraction, and a transfer of energy can occur. The intensity of the reflection is a function of the intensity of the sound wave and the impedances of the two media. Two key factors in determining the potential for damage due to a sound source are the intensity of the sound wave and the impedance difference between the two media (impedance mis-match). The bodies of the vast majority of organisms in the ocean (particularly phytoplankton and zooplankton) have similar sound impedence values to that of seawater. As a result, the potential for sound damage is low; organisms are effectively transparent to the sound – it passes through them without transferring damage-causing energy. Due to the considerations above, we have undertaken a detailed analysis of species which met the following criteria: 1) Is the species capable of being physically affected by LFS? Are acoustic impedence mis-matches large enough to enable LFS to have a physical affect or allow the species to sense LFS? 2) Does the proposed SURTASS LFA geographical sphere of acoustic influence overlap the distribution of the species? Species that did not meet the above criteria were excluded from consideration. For example, phytoplankton and zooplankton species lack acoustic impedance mis-matches at low frequencies to expect them to be physically affected SURTASS LFA. Vertebrates are the organisms that fit these criteria and we have accordingly focused our analysis of the affected environment on these vertebrate groups in the world’s oceans: fishes, reptiles, seabirds, pinnipeds, cetaceans, pinnipeds, mustelids, sirenians (Table 1).