Soviet Illegal Whaling: The Devil and the Details

In 1948, the U.S.S.R. began a global campaign of illegal whaling that lasted for three decades and, together with the poorly managed “legal” whaling of other nations, seriously depleted whale populations. Although the general story of this whaling has been told and the catch record largely corrected for the Southern Hemisphere, major gaps remain in the North Pacific. Furthermore, little attention has been paid to the details of this system or its economic context. Using interviews with former Soviet whalers and biologists as well as previously unavailable reports and other material in Russian, our objective is to describe how the Soviet whaling industry was structured and how it worked, from the largest scale of state industrial planning down to the daily details of the ways in which whales were caught and processed, and how data sent to the Bureau of International Whaling Statistics were falsified. Soviet whaling began with the factory ship Aleut in 1933, but by 1963 the industry had a truly global reach, with seven factory fleets (some very large). Catches were driven by a state planning system that set annual production targets. The system gave bonuses and honors only when these were met or exceeded, and it frequently increased the following year’s targets to match the previous year’s production; scientific estimates of the sustainability of the resource were largely ignored. Inevitably, this system led to whale populations being rapidly reduced. Furthermore, productivity was measured in gross output (weights of whales caught), regardless of whether carcasses were sound or rotten, or whether much of the animal was unutilized. Whaling fleets employed numerous people, including women (in one case as the captain of a catcher boat). Because of relatively high salaries and the potential for bonuses, positions in the whaling industry were much sought-after. Catching and processing of whales was highly mechanized and became increasingly efficient as the industry gained more experience. In a single day, the largest factory ships could process up to 200 small sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus; 100 humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae; or 30–35 pygmy blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda. However, processing of many animals involved nothing more than stripping the carcass of blubber and then discarding the rest. Until 1952, the main product was whale oil; only later was baleen whale meat regularly utilized. Falsified data on catches were routinely submitted to the Bureau of International Whaling Statistics, but the true catch and biological data were preserved for research and administrative purposes. National inspectors were present at most times, but, with occasional exceptions, they worked primarily to assist fulfillment of plan targets and routinely ignored the illegal nature of many catches. In all, during 40 years of whaling in the Antarctic, the U.S.S.R. reported 185,778 whales taken but at least 338,336 were actually killed. Data for the North Pacific are currently incomplete, but from provisional data we estimate that at least 30,000 whales were killed illegally in this ocean. Overall, we judge that, worldwide, the U.S.S.R. killed approximately 180,000 whales illegally and caused a number of population crashes. Finally, we note that Soviet illegal catches continued after 1972 despite the presence of international observers on factory fleets.

Reported Trip Costs, Gross Revenues, and Net Returns for U.S. Atlantic Pelagic Longline Vessels

Logbook set and trip summary data (containing catch and cost information, respectively) collected by NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) were analyzed for U.S. pelagic longline vessels that participated in Atlantic fisheries in 1996. These data were augmented with vessel information from the U.S. Coast Guard. Mean fish weights and ex-vessel prices from NMFS observers and licensed seafood dealers, respectively, were used to estimate gross revenues. Comparisons revealed that net returns varied substantially by vessel size and fishing behavior (i.e. sets per trip, fishing location, season, and swordfish targeting). While the calculated economic effects of proposed regulations will depend on the descriptive statistic chosen for analysis, which itself depends on the type of analysis being conducted, results show that considering heterogeneity within this fleet can have a significant effect on predicted economic consequences.

Temporal Changes in a Tropical Nekton Assemblage and Performance of a Prawn Selective Gear

The temporal variation of components of a moderately diverse (H=1.46) tropical estuarine fish assemblage (long. 146°30'E, lat. 8°45'S) was directed by salinities that had been determined by local oceanographic and probably topographic conditions. For this assemblage, two types of intrayear component profiles are predicted. Pooled data (1988-91) reveal a large component of regular/resident species (43%) in an assemblage which has been under a narrow temperature regime «5T). These results facilitate a discussion on the relevance and usefulness of three hypotheses often cited in studies concerning species diversity and component characteristics of the subtropical/tropical coastal nonreef fish assemblages. Manifestations of the assemblage are reflected in catch composition and weights of 39 trials conducted for a selective prawning gear whose performance in bycatch reduction, mainly for finfishes, is judged by an index, E, we have previously proposed. This gear is capable of harvesting the prawn while conserving the demersal fish. Behavioral responses to netting of the prawns and the finfishes, especially the nearshore surface schoolers such as leiognathids, are discussed from several points of view. An adaptation in terms of group selection for leiognathids of their locking mechanism of median fin spines has been interpreted. For the purpose of bycatch reduction or E enhancement, suggestions for improvements in net design and trawl configuration by considering the behavioral features of fish are made. Our original formula of E is modified for general use. Bycatch problems in the regional prawn fisheries and their possible impacts on fishery planning and development in Papua New Guinea as a developing country are discussed. The gear tested may offer enormous ecological and economic benefits. The gear is multipurpose, extremely simple, and can also be used as a biological sampler.

On the Distribution and Fishery Potential of the Japanese Red Crab Chaceon granulatus in the Palauan Archipelago, Western Caroline Islands

A deep-water trapping survey in the Palauan archipelago, Western Caroline Islands, has revealed an abundance of the Japanese red crab, Chaceon granulatus. The recorded depth range (250-900 m) is similar to that of other geryonids, but the large numbers of females caught below 700 m is atypical. Mean yields in excess of 5 kg crabs plus 1 kg shrimp, Heterocarpus laevigatus, by-catch per trap-night were attainable at optimum depths. Chaceon granulatus is apparently a very large geryonid, with maximum weights of 2.02 kg and 1.51 kg recorded for male and female specimens, respectively. A range of body colors was observed: Orange-red shades appear to dominate the deeper waters (below 500 m) while yellow-tan colors are more abundant in the upper reaches. Preliminary evidence suggests that Chaceon granulatus is highly marketable, and the infrastructure in Palau is such that crabs could either be marketed fresh locally or airfreighted to Japan as a quick-frozen product. The high post-trapping survival rates observed indicate that maintaining crabs in live-holding tanks may be a feasible option. The large catches and quality of deep-water crabs taken suggests that the Palauan population of Chaceon granulatus may be able to support a small-scale fishery. It is not yet known whether this population is unusually large or whether these findings typify the deep forereef fauna of the region.

Biology and Potential Use of Pacific Grenadier, Coryphaenoides acrolepis, off California

Grenadiers (family Macrouridae) are the most abundant fish on most continental slope areas worldwide. Off California the Pacific grenadier, Coryphaenoides acrolepis, occurs in relatively large numbers and may have marketing potential. This repon provides information on the biology of the species and catch results from a number of scientific cruises. Catch data on several other species found together with Pacific grenadier, panicularly sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, are also given. The fish were caught with a bottom trawl (15 trawls), and with free-vehicle longline gear (117 sets). The latter was a hook and line system in which the gear was dropped to the seafloor untethered to the fishing vessel, and floated to the surface, with the catch, when detachable weights were automatically released. Sablefish dominated longline catches in depths of 200-600fm (334-1,098m), while Pacific grenadier was most abundant between 600 and 1,OOOfm (1,098-1,830m). Best trawl catches of Pacific grenadier were made at depths between 615 and 675fm (1,125 and 1,235 m) and at 760fm (1,391 m). Ripe females were absent from our samples, but spent females were found during the entire year with highest numbers in the spring and early summer. Only one larva was found despite extensive sampling with plankton nets. Pacific grenadier was found to have good edible qualities by a taste-test panel, although the protein content (15 percent) and flesh yield (24 percent) were significantly lower than those of other fishes. A second species, the giant grenadier, Albatrossia pectoralis, was found to have exceptionally poor eating qualities and even lower protein content.

Regional Fisheries Advisory Committee 19th May, 1986

This is the report from the Regional Fisheries Advisory Committee meeting, which was held on the 19th May, 1986. The report contains sections on fishing licence duties, a liaison with Sea Fisheries Committees; applications to trap eels before the 25th June and Authority schemes for the benefit of fisheries and fishing. Also included is fish counter statistics, salmonid hatchery policy and a consultation paper setting out proposals for controlling the import and supply of anglers lead weights. The Fisheries Advisory Committee was part of the Regional Water Authorities, in this case the North West Water Authority. This preceded the Environment Agency which came into existence in 1996.

River Teign Fisheries Survey 1979

This is the River Teign Fisheries Survey from August 1979 by the South West Water Authority. The River Teign was sampled by electrofishing at fifteen sites and population estimates, average lengths, weights and biomass were calculated for each species present, and where possible for individual age classes of those species. Results indicated that a stable community structure existed, and little had changed from 1963. Salmonids accounted for the majority of the biomass, and within this group trout were the most abundant in the headwater, and salmon in the lower reaches. All tributaries sampled had higher densities and biomass than the main river. The results were compared with other data collected from similar surveys of other rivers in Devon by the South West Water Authority. Both the average length of each age class, and the biomass in the main River Teign appeared to be lower than in most other rivers, although in the Rivers Wray and Lemon these values were particularly high.

River Teign Fish Survey 1990

This is the River Teign Fisheries Survey from 1990 by the Environment Agency Archives South West (unpublished). The aim of the survey was to assess the distribution and relative abundance of salmonid fish in the River Teign. Thirty six sites were examined; twenty one of them had been examined in previous quantitative fish surveys. At each site, all fish species encountered were caught and measured, however, only data for salmonid fishes has been examined. The results are compared with those of the 1963 and 1972 surveys carried out by the Devon River Authority and the 1975 and 1979 surveys carried out by South West Water Authority. A full list of sites together with their location, fish densities, lengths, weights and ages is attached.

A report on the strategic stock assessment survey of the Colton Beck catchment 1994 with particular reference to salmonids

This is the report on the strategic stock assessment survey of the Colton Beck catchment in 1994 with particular reference to salmonids in Colton Beck, River Ea, River Gilpin and Rusland Pool. This report forms one part of the third year of a triennial survey programme for the South West Cumbria and South Cumbria catchments. It was produced by the National Rivers Authority in 1994. Colton Beck had excellent densities of sea trout (Salmo trutta) and a small population of salmon (Salmo salar) in its lowest reaches. The total productivity was very good throughout the catchment. Stocking of sea trout fry in 1993 has enhanced the population with survivors through to parr probably adding to the scoring of double class A at two sites in the survey in 1994. Stocking was not undertaken in 1994, but the population appears to be maintaining itself at a very high level.

Maternal effects on fecundity and egg quality of the Patagonian stock of Argentine Hake (Merluccius hubbsi)

The influences of age, size, and condition of spawning females on fecundity and oocyte quality were analyzed for the Patagonian stock of Argentine Hake (Merluccius hubbsi). Samples of mature females were collected in the spawning area as part of 2 research surveys conducted in January 2010 and 2011, during the peak of the reproductive season. Batch fecundity (BF) ranged between 40,500 (29 cm total length [TL]) and 2,550,000 (95 cm TL) hydrated oocytes, and was positively correlated with TL, gutted weight, age, hepatosomatic index (HSI), and the relative condition factor (Kn). Relative fecundity ranged between 85 and 1040 hydrated oocytes g–1 and showed significant positive relationships with gutted weight, HSI, and Kn; however, coefficients of determination were low for all regressions. Dry weights of samples of 100 hydrated oocytes ranged between 1.8 and 3.95 mg and were positively correlated with all variables analyzed, including batch and relative fecundity. Multiple regression models created with data of the morphophysiological characteristics of females supported maternal influences on fecundity and egg weights. Within the studied size range (29–95 cm TL), larger individuals had better somatic and egg condition, mainly revealed by higher HSI and hydrated oocytes with larger oil droplets (275.71μm [standard error 1.49]). These results were associated with the higher feeding activity of larger females during the spawning season in comparison with the feeding activity of young individuals (<5 years old); the better nutritional state of larger females, assumed to result from more feeding, was conducive to greater production of high-quality eggs.

Does the size of subsamples taken from multispecies trawl catches affect estimates of catch composition and abundance?

Although subsampling is a common method for describing the composition of large and diverse trawl catches, the accuracy of these techniques is often unknown. We determined the sampling errors generated from estimating the percentage of the total number of species recorded in catches, as well as the abundance of each species, at each increase in the proportion of the sorted catch. We completely partitioned twenty prawn trawl catches from tropical northern Australia into subsamples of about 10 kg each. All subsamples were then sorted, and species numbers recorded. Catch weights ranged from 71 to 445 kg, and the number of fish species in trawls ranged from 60 to 138, and invertebrate species from 18 to 63. Almost 70% of the species recorded in catches were “rare” in subsamples (less than one individual per 10 kg subsample or less than one in every 389 individuals). A matrix was used to show the increase in the total number of species that were recorded in each catch as the percentage of the sorted catch increased. Simulation modelling showed that sorting small subsamples (about 10% of catch weights) identified about 50% of the total number of species caught in a trawl. Larger subsamples (50% of catch weight on average) identified about 80% of the total species caught in a trawl. The accuracy of estimating the abundance of each species also increased with increasing subsample size. For the “rare” species, sampling error was around 80% after sorting 10% of catch weight and was just less than 50% after 40% of catch weight had been sorted. For the “abundant” species (five or more individuals per 10 kg subsample or five or more in every 389 individuals), sampling error was around 25% after sorting 10% of catch weight, but was reduced to around 10% after 40% of catch weight had been sorted.

Age and size composition, growth rate, reproductive biology, and habitats of the West Australian dhufish (Glaucosoma hebraicum) and their relevance to the management of this species

Samples of the commercially and recreationally important West Australian dhufish (Glaucosoma hebraicum) were obtained from the lower west coast of Australia by a variety of methods. Fish <300 mm TL were caught over flat, hard substrata and low-lying limestone reefs, whereas larger fish were caught over larger limestone and coral reef formations. Maximum total lengths, weights, and ages were 981 mm, 15.3 kg, and 39 years, respectively, for females and 1120 mm, 23.2 kg, and 41 years, respectively, for males. The von Bertalanffy growth curves for females and males were significantly different. The values for L∞, k, and t0 in the von Bertalanffy growth equations were 929 mm, 0.111/year, and –0.141 years, respectively, for females, and 1025 mm, 0.111/year, and –0.052 years, respectively, for males. Preliminary estimates of total mortality indicated that G. hebraicum is now subjected to a level of fishing pressure that must be of concern to fishery managers. Glaucosoma hebraicum, which spawns between November and April and predominantly between December and March, breeds at a wide range of depths and is a multiple spawner. The L50’s for females and males at first maturity, i.e. 301 and 320 mm, respectively, were attained by about the end of the third year of life and are well below the minimum legal length (MLL) of 500 mm. Because females and males did not reach the MLL until the end of their seventh and sixth years of life, respectively, they would have had, on average, the opportunity of spawning during four and three spawning seasons, respectively, before they reached the MLL. However, because G. hebraicum caught in water depths >40 m typically die upon release, a MLL is of limited use for conserving this species. Alternative approaches, such as restricting fishing activity in highly fished areas, reducing daily bag limits for recreational fishermen, introducing quotas or revising specific details of certain commercial hand-line licences (or doing both) are more likely to provide effective conservation measures.

Experiments in constituting a taste panel for canned and frozen prawn products

With a view to constituting a taste panel in the laboratory for detecting the flavor changes in canned and frozen prawn, three methods of panel selection (scalar scoring method, range and deviation method and triangular method) were tried. Out of the three, triangular method was found to be suitable for panel formation in canned and frozen prawn. Using this method a panel of six members was formed for detecting flavor changes in the two products.

Evaluation of quality of shark livers using bio-chemical properties and organoleptic score sheet

Shark livers are considered as an important raw material providing a quality fish oil. It has been reported to aid white — blood-cell production and act as an active ingredient in hemorrhoid treatments. It is also reported that liver oil as a good supplement of vitamin A and poly-unsaturated fatty acids which are important to the development of brain cells in human. Freshness of livers is very important to extract better quality oil. In Sri Lanka, the annual shark production amounts to 8000t, however the quality of livers collected from landing sites has not being measured yet. Present study was conducted to evaluate the quality of silky (Charcarninus fakiformis) shark livers available in Negombo and Beruwala landing sites in the West Coast of Sri Lanka and also to study the relationship between organoleptic and bio-chemical correlation on freshness of shark livers. Liver samples which were collected from landing sites in the West coast of Sri Lanka, were evaluated for external and internal colour, texture and odour. Total volatile nitrogen (TVN), pH value, free fatty acid (FFA%) and peroxide (PV) values of livers were also determined to assess quality. According to the organoleptic scoring system 4.3% of liver samples were categorized as best in quality while 30.4%, 56.5% and 8.7% rated as good, medium and poor in quality respectively at the Negombo and Beruwala landing sites. Bio-chemical analysis showed that the better quality livers had the highest score for sensory evaluation and low values for TVN, FFA and peroxide value while low quality livers gave low score for sensory evaluation and high TVN, FFA, peroxide values. Correlation coefficient of organoleptic scores against total volatile nitrogen value, pH value, free fatty acid % and peroxide value of shark livers were determined by statistical analysis. Organoleptic score of shark livers was found to be highly.

The potential of mixed culture of freshwater giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man and tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon Fab. at Khulna region, Bangladesh

The freshwater giant prawn (golda), Macrobrachium rosenbergii and tiger shrimp (bagda), Penaeus monodon were stocked together with or without fin fishes at different stocking rates in semi-saline waters at Khulna region and their growth, survival, yield and costreturn analysis were made. Survival rate of golda and bagda ranged from 23.0 to 36.8% and 8.2 to 24%, respectively. The both species were significantly affected by their own stocking density. The average final weight of golda and bagda ranged from 62.4 to 73.3 g and 32.0 to 66.4 g. The bivariate analysis of average final weight of both golda and bagda revealed that golda positively and bagda negatively influenced by the total stocking density. However, the results of the individual sizes of both golda and bagda showed an increase in the proportions of smaller animals and a decrease in the proportion of larger ones with increasing stocking rates. The harvesting weights of all animals in the experimental ghers were in marketable sizes although their prices varied with the individual size. The total production comprised of both golda and bagda ranged from 514.6 to 952.8 kg ha·1, over a culture period of 10 months. Return on investment ranged from 51.0 to 125.7%.