Development of Beluga, Delphinapterus leucas, Capture and Satellite Tagging Protocol in Cook Inlet, Alaska

Attempts to capture and place satellite tags on belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska were conducted during late spring and summer of 1995, 1997, and 1999. In 1995, capture attempts using a hoop net proved impractical in Cook Inlet. In 1997, capture efforts focused on driving belugas into nets. Although this method had been successful in the Canadian High Arctic, it failed in Cook Inlet due to the ability of the whales to detect and avoid nets in shallow and very turbid water. In 1999, belugas were successfully captured using a gillnet encirclement technique. A satellite tag was attached to a juvenile male, which subsequently provided the first documentation of this species’ movements within Cook Inlet during the summer months (31 May–17 September).

Harvest History of Belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska

Belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska, represent a unique and isolated marine mammal population that has been hunted for a variety of purposes since prehistoric times. Archeological studies have shown that both Alutiiq Eskimos and Dena'ina Atabaskan Indians have long utilized many marine resources in Cook Inlet, including belugas. Over the past century, commercial whaling and sport hunting also occurred periodically in Cook Inlet prior to the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA). During the 1990's, the hunting mortality by Alaska Natives apparently increased to 40-70 whales per year, which led to the decling of this stock and its subsequent designation in 2000 as depleted under the MMPA. Concerns about the decline of the Cook Inlet stock resulted in a voluntary suspension of the subsistenc hunt by Alaska Natives in 1999. The difficulty in obtaining accurate estimates for the harvest of these whales is due to the inability to identify all of the hunters and, in turn, the size of the harvest. Attempts to reconstruct harvest records based on hunters' recollections and interviews from only a few households have been subject to a wide degree of speculation. To adequately monitor the beluga harvest, the National Marine Fisheries Service established marking and reporting regulations in October 1999. These rules require that Alaska Natives who hunt belugas in Cook Inlet must collect the lowere left jaw from harvested whales and complete a report that includes date and time of the harvest, coloration of the whale, harvest location, and method of harvest. The MMPA was amended in 2000 to require a cooperative agreement between the National Marine Fisheries Service and Alaska Native organizations before hunting could be resumed.

Traditional Knowledge of the Ecology of Belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska

The population of belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, in Cook Inlet, Alaska, is geographically isolated and appears to be declining. Conservation efforts require appropriate information about population levels and trends, feeding and behavior, reproduction, and natural and anthropogenic impacts. This study documents traditional ecological knowledge of the Alaska Native hunters of belugas in Cook Inlet to add information from this critical source. Traditional knowledge about belugas has been documented elsewhere by the author, and the same methods were used in Cook Inlet to systematically gather information concerning knowledge of the natural history of this beluga population and its habitat. The hunters’knowledge is largely consistent with what is known from previous research, and it extends the published descriptions of the ecology of beluga whales in Cook Inlet. Making this information available and involving the hunters to a greater extent in research and management are important contributions to the conservation of Cook Inlet beluga

Biological Characteristics and Fishery Assessment of Alaska Plaice, Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus, in the Eastern Bering Sea

Alaska plaice, Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus, is one of the major flatfishes in the eastern Bering Sea ecosystem and is most highly concentrated in the shallow continental shelf of the eastern Bering Sea. Annual commercial catches have ranged from less than 1,000 metric tons (t) in 1963 to 62,000 t in 1988. Alaska plaice is a relatively large flatfish averaging about 32 cm in length and 390 g in weight in commercial catches. They are distributed from nearshore waters to a depth of about 100 m in the eastern Bering Sea during summer, but move to deeper continental shelf waters in winter to escape sea ice and cold water temperatures. Being a long-lived species (>30 years), they have a relatively low natural mortality rate estimated at 0.20. Maturing at about age 7, Alaska plaice spawn from April through June on hard sandy substrates of the shelf region, primarily around the 100 m isobath. Prey items primarily include polychaetes and other marine worms. In comparison with other flatfish, Alaska plaice and rock sole, Pleuronectes bilineatus, have similar diets but different habitat preferences with separate areas of peak population density which may minimize interspecific competition. Yellowfin sole, Pleuronectes asper, while sharing similar habitat, differs from these two species because of the variety of prey items in its diet. Competition for food resources among the three species appears to be low. The resource has experienced light exploitation since 1963 and is currently in good condition. Based on the results of demersal trawl surveys and age-structured analyses, the exploitable biomass increased from 1971 through the mid-1980’s before decreasing to the 1997 level of 500,000 t. The recommended 1998 harvest level, Allowable Biological Catch, was calculated from the Baranov catch equation based on the FMSY harvest level and the projected 1997 biomass, resulting in a commercial harvest of 69,000 t, or about 16% of the estimated exploitable biomass.

The Threatened Status of Steller Sea Lions, Eumetopias jubatus, under the Endangered Species Act: Effects on Alaska Groundfish Fisheries Management

In April 1990, the Steller sea lion, Eumetopias jubatus, was listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act by emergency action. Competitive interactions with the billion-dollar Alaska commercial groundfish fisheries have been suggested as one of the possible contributing factors to the Steller sea lion population decline. Since the listing, fisheries managers have attempted to address the potential impacts of the groundfish fisheries on Steller sea lion recovery. In this paper, we review pertinent Federal legislation, biological information on the Steller sea lion decline, changes in the Alaska trawl fishery for walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma, since the late 1970's, andpossible interactions between fisheries and sea lions. Using three cases, we illustrate how the listing of Steller sea lions has affected Alaska groundfish fisheries through: I) actions taken at the time of listing designed to limit the potential for directhuman-related sea lion mortality, 2) actions addressing spatial and temporal separation of fisheries from sea lions, and 3) introduction of risk-adverse stock assessment methodologies and Steller sea lion conservation considerations directly in the annual quota-setting process. This discussion shows some of the ways that North Pacific groundfish resource managers have begun to explicitly consider the conservation ofmarine mammal and other nontarget species.

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Catches of Tiger Sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, in the Pelagic Longline Fishery Around the Hawaiian Islands

Thirty-five tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, have been reported caught in pelagic longline gearfrom 25 to 265 n.mi. off the Hawaiian Archipelago during December 1990-May 1993. Fifteen sharks were caught farther than 50 n.mi. offshore, indicating that tiger sharks do occur well offshore and removed from benthic topography. About 89% of the sharks were caught during October-March, while only 56% of the fishing effort occurred during that period.

The Fisheries of Hawaii and U.S.-associated Pacific Islands

In the late 1980's and early 1990's, significant changes occurred in the fisheries of Hawaii. Expansion and diversification of pelagic fisheries and growth (including industrialization) of fisheries that, in at least some cases, had been largely recreational or artisanall ed to fear of overfishing and problems in allocation among fishery sectors. Combined with establishment of limited entry programs in Hawaii fisheries (bottomfish, longline, and lobster), this led to anticipation that similar growth might occur in Guam, the Northern Marianas, and American Samoa.

Fisheries and Marine Resources of Hawaii and the U.S.-associated Pacific Islands: An Introduction

The fisheries of Hawaii and other U.S.-associated islands in the Pacific Ocean are characterized by high diversity, both in the species exploited and the human cultures that exploit them. The commercial sector has undergone rapid growth in recent years, but recreational and subsistence sectors remain important. Information on these fisheries is generally not available in published form. This paper presents an overview and introduction to a volume of papers describing fisheries in the region, with the goal of making the information available to scientists and the general public. A great deal remains to be learned about the dynamics of these fisheries as well as the associated issues in biological research, fisheries management, and environmental protection.

An Ecological Perspective on Inshore Fisheries in the Main Hawaiian Islands

A description of fisheries within a depth of 100 fathoms is provided for the eight southeastern-most islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago, known as the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI). These are the inhabited islands of the State of Hawaii and are those most subject to inshore fishing pressure, because of their accessibility. Between 1980 and 1990, an average of 1,300 short tons of fishes and invertebrates were reported annually within 100 fm by commercial fishermen. Total landings may be significantly greater, since fishing is a popular pastime of residents and noncommercial landings are not reported. Although limited data are available on noncommercial fisheries, the majority of this review is based on reported commercial landings. The principal ecological factors influencing fisheries in the MHI include coastal currents, the breadth and steepness of the coastal platform, and differences in windward and leeward climate. Expansive coastal development, increased erosion, and sedimentation are among negative human impacts on inshore reef ecosystems on most islands. Commercial fisheries for large pelagics (tunas and billfishes) are important in inshore areas around Ni'ihau, Ka'ula Rock, Kauai, and the Island of Hawaii (the Big Island), as are bottom "handline" fisheries for snappers and groupers around Kauai and Molokai. However, many more inshore fishermen target reef and estuarine species. Two pelagic carangids, "akule," Selar crumenopthalmus, and "opelu," Decapterus macarellus, support the largest inshore fisheries in the MHI. During 1980-90, reported commercial landings within three miles of shore averaged 203 and 125 t for akule and opelu, respectively. Akule landings are distributed fairly evenly throughout the MHI, while more than 72% of the state's inshore opelu landings take place on the Big Island. Besides akule and opelu, other important commercial fisheries on all the MHI include those for surgeon, soldier, parrot, and goatfishes; snappers; octopus, and various trevallies. Trends in reported landings, trips, and catch per unit effort over the last decade are outlined for these fisheries. In heavily populated areas, fishing pressure appears to exceed the capacity of inshore resources to renew themselves. Management measures are beginning to focus on methods of limiting inshore fishing effort, while trying to maintain residents' access to fishing.

Precious Coral Fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Islands

The precious coral fishery in Hawaii and the Western Pacific consists of one industry but two distinct and separate fisheries. The first is the harvest of black coral by scuba divers from depths of 30-100 m. The second is a fishery for pink and gold coral at depths between 400 and 1500 m and employs either a human-operated submersible that permits selective harvest or tangle net dredges which are nonselective. The modern history of these fisheries date from 1958 until the present. In this paper the ecology, life history. and management of the dominant species that make up these fisheries are reviewed. Research needs of the fisheries and the economic and future prospects of the precious coral industry are also described. At the present, the precious coral jewelry industry in Hawaii (all species) is valued at about $25 million at the retail level.

Submersible Observations on Lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus, Nesting Below 30 m off Sitka, Alaska

A research submersible was used to delineate the depth distribution of lingcod, Ophiodon elongatus, nests (egg masses) below 30 m. Although nests were not seen deeper than 97 m, behavior and dark coloration distinctive of nest-guarding lingcod were seen as deep as 126 m. Males guarding nests were distinctly colored, i.e., dark with little or no mottling, and most were obviously scarred. Two types of guarding behaviors were observed: 1) Males lying directly on or beside the nest and remaining nearly motionless unless touched and 2) males lying on a sentry post and defending the nest when other fish swam close.

On the Distribution and Fishery Potential of the Japanese Red Crab Chaceon granulatus in the Palauan Archipelago, Western Caroline Islands

A deep-water trapping survey in the Palauan archipelago, Western Caroline Islands, has revealed an abundance of the Japanese red crab, Chaceon granulatus. The recorded depth range (250-900 m) is similar to that of other geryonids, but the large numbers of females caught below 700 m is atypical. Mean yields in excess of 5 kg crabs plus 1 kg shrimp, Heterocarpus laevigatus, by-catch per trap-night were attainable at optimum depths. Chaceon granulatus is apparently a very large geryonid, with maximum weights of 2.02 kg and 1.51 kg recorded for male and female specimens, respectively. A range of body colors was observed: Orange-red shades appear to dominate the deeper waters (below 500 m) while yellow-tan colors are more abundant in the upper reaches. Preliminary evidence suggests that Chaceon granulatus is highly marketable, and the infrastructure in Palau is such that crabs could either be marketed fresh locally or airfreighted to Japan as a quick-frozen product. The high post-trapping survival rates observed indicate that maintaining crabs in live-holding tanks may be a feasible option. The large catches and quality of deep-water crabs taken suggests that the Palauan population of Chaceon granulatus may be able to support a small-scale fishery. It is not yet known whether this population is unusually large or whether these findings typify the deep forereef fauna of the region.

Use of Fish Corrals in the Seine Fishery of the Virgin Islands

Although selected aspects of the commercial fishery in the Virgin Islands have been documented since the early 1930's (Fiedler and Jarvis, 1932; Idyll and Randall, 1959; Hess, 1961; Swingle et al. 1970; Brownell, 1971; Brownell and Rainey, 1971; Sylvester and Dammann, 1972, and Olsen et al., 1978), fish corrals and their use have not been described. This account, based on personal observations made during 1985-86, summarizes commercial fishing methods in the Virgin Islands (U. S. and British), documents the use of fish corrals, and serves as an introduction to the methodologies of this harvesting technique. Interviews of commercial fishermen about how and when fish corrals are used provided information not available from direct observation. Local common names for gear type and fish species are shown in parentheses.

Application of the Leslie Model to Commercial Catch and Effort of the Slipper Lobster, Scyllarides squammosus, Fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Commercial catch and effort data were fit to the Leslie model to estimate preexploitation abundance and the catchability coefficient of slipper lobster, Scyllarides squammosus, in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). A single vessel fished for 34 consecutive days in the vicinity of Laysan Island and caught 126,127 total slipper lobster in 36,170 trap hauls. Adjusted catch of legal slipper lobster dropped from a high of 3.70 to 1.16 lobster per trap haul. Preexploitation abundance at Laysan Island was an estimated 204,000 legal slipper lobster, which was extrapolated to yield an estimate of 1.2 X 106 to 3.8 X 106 lobster for the entire NWHI slipper lobster fishery.

Structure and development of a Scalesia pedunculata stand in the Galapagos Islands

Stands of Scalesia pedunculata in the Galapagos Islands often develop as single-aged cohorts following episodes of mass death and regeneration. We updated earlier studies on a stand that had regenerated soon after the 1982–3 El Niño event. We quantified stem size distribution and dispersion pattern in a 0.56 ha plot near Los Gemelos on Santa Cruz Island. The plot was dominated (95% of basal area) by S. pedunculata. The stem size distribution showed the increased mean and variance for diameter (since 1987 and 1991) expected of an aging stand. Stems averaged smaller than in 1981, just before the last mass mortality episode. Large S. pedunculata stems were regularly dispersed while smaller stems were clumped and negatively associated with larger stems, implying that intraspecific competition may be important in structuring the stand. CDF Contribution Number 1008.