Vocal imitation in zebra finches is inversely related to model abundance

A juvenile male zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata, kept singly with its father develops a fairly complete imitation of the father’s song. The imitation is less complete when other male siblings are present, possibly because as imitation commences, model abundance increases. Here we examine the consequences of allowing more or less access to a song model. Young males heard a brief song playback when they pecked at a key, but different males were allowed to hear different numbers of playbacks per day. Using an automated procedure that scored the similarity between model and pupil songs, we discovered that 40 playbacks of the song motif per day, lasting a total of 30 sec, resulted in a fairly complete imitation. More exposure led to less complete imitation. Vocal imitation often may reflect the interaction of diverse influences. Among these, we should now include the possible inhibitory effect of model overabundance, which may foster individual identity and explain the vocal diversity found in zebra finches and other songbirds.

A preference for own-subspecies' song guides vocal learning in a song bird

In many song birds, males develop their songs as adults by imitating the songs of one or more tutors, memorized previously during a sensitive phase early in life. Previous work using two assays, the production of imitations by adult males and playback-induced calling by young birds during the sensitive phase for memorization, has shown that song birds can discriminate between their own and other species' songs. Herein I use both assays to show that male mountain white-crowned sparrows, Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha, must learn to sing but have a genetic predisposition to memorize and learn the songs of their own subspecies. Playback tests to young naive birds before they even begin to sing reveal that birds give begging calls more in response to oriantha song than to songs of another species. After 10 days of tutoring with songs of either their own or another subspecies, birds continue to give stronger call responses to songs of their own subspecies, irrespective of whether they were tutored with them, and are more discriminating in distinguishing between different dialects of their own subspecies. The memory processes that facilitate recognition and discrimination of own-subspecies' song may also mediate the preferential imitation of song of a bird's own subspecies. Such perceptual biases could constrain the direction and rate of cultural evolution of learned songs.

Recovery of hearing and vocal behavior after hair-cell regeneration

Postmitotic hair-cell regeneration in the inner ear of birds provides an opportunity to study the effect of renewed auditory input on auditory perception, vocal production, and vocal learning in a vertebrate. We used behavioral conditioning to test both perception and vocal production in a small Australian parrot, the budgerigar. Results show that both auditory perception and vocal production are disrupted when hair cells are damaged or lost but that these behaviors return to near normal over time. Precision in vocal production completely recovers well before recovery of full auditory function. These results may have particular relevance for understanding the relation between hearing loss and human speech production especially where there is consideration of an auditory prosthetic device. The present results show, at least for a bird, that even limited recovery of auditory input soon after deafening can support full recovery of vocal precision.

Song selectivity and sensorimotor signals in vocal learning and production

Bird song, like human speech, is a learned vocal behavior that requires auditory feedback. Both as juveniles, while they learn to sing, and as adults, songbirds use auditory feedback to compare their own vocalizations with an internal model of a target song. Here we describe experiments that explore a role for the songbird anterior forebrain pathway (AFP), a basal ganglia-forebrain circuit, in evaluating song feedback and modifying vocal output. First, neural recordings in anesthetized, juvenile birds show that single AFP neurons are specialized to process the song stimuli that are compared during sensorimotor learning. AFP neurons are tuned to both the bird's own song and the tutor song, even when these stimuli are manipulated to be very different from each other. Second, behavioral experiments in adult birds demonstrate that lesions to the AFP block the deterioration of song that normally follows deafening. This observation suggests that deafening results in an instructive signal, indicating a mismatch between feedback and the internal song model, and that the AFP is involved in generating or transmitting this instructive signal. Finally, neural recordings from behaving birds reveal robust singing-related activity in the AFP. This activity is likely to originate from premotor areas and could be modulated by auditory feedback of the bird's own voice. One possibility is that this activity represents an efference copy, predicting the sensory consequences of motor commands. Overall, these studies illustrate that sensory and motor processes are highly interrelated in this circuit devoted to vocal learning, as is true for brain areas involved in speech.

On cortical coding of vocal communication sounds in primates

Understanding how the brain processes vocal communication sounds is one of the most challenging problems in neuroscience. Our understanding of how the cortex accomplishes this unique task should greatly facilitate our understanding of cortical mechanisms in general. Perception of species-specific communication sounds is an important aspect of the auditory behavior of many animal species and is crucial for their social interactions, reproductive success, and survival. The principles of neural representations of these behaviorally important sounds in the cerebral cortex have direct implications for the neural mechanisms underlying human speech perception. Our progress in this area has been relatively slow, compared with our understanding of other auditory functions such as echolocation and sound localization. This article discusses previous and current studies in this field, with emphasis on nonhuman primates, and proposes a conceptual platform to further our exploration of this frontier. It is argued that the prerequisite condition for understanding cortical mechanisms underlying communication sound perception and production is an appropriate animal model. Three issues are central to this work: (i) neural encoding of statistical structure of communication sounds, (ii) the role of behavioral relevance in shaping cortical representations, and (iii) sensory–motor interactions between vocal production and perception systems.

The deferred imitation task as a nonverbal measure of declarative memory.

We tested amnesic patients, patients with frontal lobe lesions, and control subjects with the deferred imitation task, a nonverbal test used to demonstrate memory abilities in human infants. On day 1, subjects were given sets of objects to obtain a baseline measure of their spontaneous performance of target actions. Then different event sequences were modeled with the object sets. On day 2, the objects were given to the subjects again, first without any instructions to imitate the sequences, and then with explicit instructions to imitate the actions exactly as they had been modeled. Control subjects and frontal lobe patients reproduced the events under both uninstructed and instructed conditions. In contrast, performance by the amnesic patients did not significantly differ from that of a second control group who had the same opportunities to handle the objects but were not shown the modeled actions. These findings suggest that deferred imitation is dependent on the brain structures essential for declarative memory that are damaged in amnesia, and they support the view that infants who imitate actions after long delays have an early capacity for long-term declarative memory.