AvrPto-dependent Pto-interacting proteins and AvrPto-interacting proteins in tomato

The plant-intracellular interaction of the avirulence protein AvrPto of Pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato, the agent of bacterial speck disease, and the corresponding tomato resistance protein Pto triggers responses leading to disease resistance. Pto, a serine/threonine protein kinase, also interacts with a putative downstream kinase, Pto-interactor 1, as well as with members of a family of transcription factors Pto-interactors 4, 5, and 6. These proteins are likely involved, respectively, in a phosphorylation cascade resulting in hypersensitive cell death, and in defense gene activation. The mechanism by which the interaction of AvrPto and Pto initiates defense response signaling is not known. To pursue the hypothesis that tertiary interactions are involved, we modified the yeast two-hybrid protein interaction trap and conducted a search for tomato proteins that interact with Pto only in the presence of AvrPto. Five classes of AvrPto-dependent Pto interactors were isolated, and their interaction specificity confirmed. Also, to shed light on a recently demonstrated virulence activity of AvrPto, we conducted a standard two-hybrid screen for tomato proteins in addition to Pto that interact with AvrPto: i.e., potential virulence targets or modifiers of AvrPto. By constructing an N-terminal rather than a C-terminal fusion of AvrPto to the LexA DNA binding domain, we were able to overcome autoactivation by AvrPto and identify four classes of specific AvrPto-interacting proteins.

Identifying functional domains within terpene cyclases using a domain-swapping strategy.

Cyclic terpenes and terpenoids are found throughout nature. They comprise an especially important class of compounds from plants that mediate plant- environment interactions, and they serve as pharmaceutical agents with antimicrobial and anti-tumor activities. Molecular comparisons of several terpene cyclases, the key enzymes responsible for the multistep cyclization of C10, C15, and C20 allylic diphosphate substrates, have revealed a striking level of sequence similarity and conservation of exon position and size within the genes. Functional domains responsible for a terminal enzymatic step were identified by swapping regions approximating exons between a Nicotiana tabacum 5-epi-aristolochene synthase (TEAS) gene and a Hyoscyamus muticus vetispiradiene synthase (HVS) gene and by characterization of the resulting chimeric enzymes expressed in bacteria. While exon 4 of the TEAS gene conferred specificity for the predominant reaction products of the tobacco enzyme, exon 6 of the HVS gene conferred specificity for the predominant reaction products of the Hyoscyamus enzyme. Combining these two functional domains of the TEAS and HVS genes resulted in a novel enzyme capable of synthesizing reaction products reflective of both parent enzymes. The relative ratio of the TEAS and HVS reaction products was also influenced by the source of exon 5 present in the new chimeric enzymes. The association of catalytic activities with conserved but separate exonic domains suggests a general means for generating additional novel terpene cyclases.

High frequency of sex and equal frequencies of mating types in natural populations of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila.

In ciliate protists, sex involves the temporary joining of two cells of compatible mating type, followed by meiosis and exchange of gametic nuclei between conjugants. Reproduction is by asexual binary fission following conjugation. For the many ciliates with fixed multiple mating types, frequency-dependent sex-ratio theory predicts equal frequencies of mating types, if sex is common in nature. Here, we report that in natural populations of Tetrahymena thermophila sexually immature cells, indicative of recent conjugation, are found from spring through fall. In addition, the seven mating types occur in approximately equal frequencies, and these frequencies appear to be maintained by interaction between complex, multiple mat alleles and environmental conditions during conjugation. Such genotype-environment interaction determining mating type frequency is rare among ciliates.

Agrobacterium VirD2 protein interacts with plant host cyclophilins

Agrobacterium tumefaciens induces crown gall tumors on plants by transferring a nucleoprotein complex, the T-complex, from the bacterium to the plant cell. The T-complex consists of T-DNA, a single-stranded DNA segment of the tumor-inducing plasmid, VirD2, an endonuclease covalently bound to the 5′ end of the T-DNA, and perhaps VirE2, a single-stranded DNA binding protein. The yeast two-hybrid system was used to screen for proteins interacting with VirD2 and VirE2 to identify components in Arabidopsis thaliana that interact with the T-complex. Three VirD2- and two VirE2-interacting proteins were identified. Here we characterize the interactions of VirD2 with two isoforms of Arabidopsis cyclophilins identified by using this analysis. The VirD2 domain interacting with the cyclophilins is distinct from the endonuclease, omega, and the nuclear localization signal domains. The VirD2–cyclophilin interaction is disrupted in vitro by cyclosporin A, which also inhibits Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of Arabidopsis and tobacco. These data strongly suggest that host cyclophilins play a role in T-DNA transfer.

A secreted Salmonella protein with homology to an avirulence determinant of plant pathogenic bacteria

Bacterial pathogens have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to interact with their hosts. A specialized type III protein secretion system capable of translocating bacterial proteins into host cells has emerged as a central factor in the interaction between a variety of mammalian and plant pathogenic bacteria with their hosts. Here we describe AvrA, a novel target of the centisome 63 type III protein secretion system of Salmonella enterica. AvrA shares sequence similarity with YopJ of the animal pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and AvrRxv of the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. These proteins are the first examples of putative targets of type III secretion systems in animal and plant pathogenic bacteria that share sequence similarity. They may therefore constitute a novel family of effector proteins with related functions in the cross-talk of these pathogens with their hosts.

Identification and analysis of the plant peroxisomal targeting signal 1 receptor NtPEX5

Protein translocation into peroxisomes takes place via recognition of a peroxisomal targeting signal present at either the extreme C termini (PTS1) or N termini (PTS2) of matrix proteins. In mammals and yeast, the peroxisomal targeting signal receptor, Pex5p, recognizes the PTS1 consisting of -SKL or variants thereof. Although many plant peroxisomal matrix proteins are transported through the PTS1 pathway, little is known about the PTS1 receptor or any other peroxisome assembly protein from plants. We cloned tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cDNAs encoding Pex5p (NtPEX5) based on the protein’s interaction with a PTS1-containing protein in the yeast two-hybrid system. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the tobacco Pex5p contains seven tetratricopeptide repeats and that NtPEX5 shares greater sequence similarity with its homolog from humans than from yeast. Expression of NtPEX5 fusion proteins, consisting of the N-terminal part of yeast Pex5p and the C-terminal region of NtPEX5, in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae pex5 mutant restored protein translocation into peroxisomes. These experiments confirmed the identity of the tobacco protein as a PTS1 receptor and indicated that components of the peroxisomal translocation apparatus are conserved functionally. Two-hybrid assays showed that NtPEX5 interacts with a wide range of PTS1 variants that also interact with the human Pex5p. Interestingly, the C-terminal residues of some of these peptides deviated from the established plant PTS1 consensus sequence. We conclude that there are significant sequence and functional similarities between the plant and human Pex5ps.

Primate species richness is determined by plant productivity: Implications for conservation

The explanation of patterns in species richness ranks among the most important tasks of ecology. Current theories emphasize the interaction between historical and geographical factors affecting the size of the regional species pool and of locally acting processes such as competitive exclusion, disturbance, productivity, and seasonality. Local species richness, or alpha diversity, of plants and primary consumers has been claimed to peak in habitats of low and intermediate productivity, which, if true, has major implications for conservation. Here, by contrast, we show that local richness of Neotropical primates (platyrrhines) is influenced by both historical biogeography and productivity but not by tree species richness or seasonality. This pattern indicates that habitats with the highest plant productivity are also the richest for many important primary consumers. We show further that fragmentation of Amazonian rain forests in the Pleistocene, if it occurred, appears to have had a negligible influence on primate alpha species richness.

Interaction between HLA-DM and HLA-DR involves regions that undergo conformational changes at lysosomal pH

Antigenic peptide loading of major histocompatibility complex class II molecules is enhanced by lysosomal pH and catalyzed by the HLA-DM molecule. The physical mechanism behind the catalytic activity of DM was investigated by using time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy (TRFA) and fluorescence binding studies with the dye 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid (ANS). We demonstrate that the conformations of both HLA-DM and HLA-DR3, irrespective of the composition of bound peptide, are pH sensitive. Both complexes reversibly expose more nonpolar regions upon protonation. Interaction of DM with DR shields these hydrophobic domains from the aqueous environment, leading to stabilization of the DM and DR conformations. At lysosomal pH, the uncovering of additional hydrophobic patches leads to a more extensive DM–DR association. We propose that DM catalyzes class II peptide loading by stabilizing the low-pH conformation of DR, favoring peptide exchange. The DM–DR association involves a larger hydrophobic surface area with DR/class II-associated invariant chain peptides (CLIP) than with stable DR/peptide complexes, explaining the preferred association of DM with the former. The data support a release mechanism of DM from the DM–DR complex through reduction of the interactive surface, upon binding of class II molecules with antigenic peptide or upon neutralization of the DM–DR complex at the cell surface.

Structural details of an interaction between cardiolipin and an integral membrane protein

Anionic lipids play a variety of key roles in biomembrane function, including providing the immediate environment for the integral membrane proteins that catalyze photosynthetic and respiratory energy transduction. Little is known about the molecular basis of these lipid–protein interactions. In this study, x-ray crystallography has been used to examine the structural details of an interaction between cardiolipin and the photoreaction center, a key light-driven electron transfer protein complex found in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria. X-ray diffraction data collected over the resolution range 30.0–2.1 Å show that binding of the lipid to the protein involves a combination of ionic interactions between the protein and the lipid headgroup and van der Waals interactions between the lipid tails and the electroneutral intramembrane surface of the protein. In the headgroup region, ionic interactions involve polar groups of a number of residues, the protein backbone, and bound water molecules. The lipid tails sit along largely hydrophobic grooves in the irregular surface of the protein. In addition to providing new information on the immediate lipid environment of a key integral membrane protein, this study provides the first, to our knowledge, high-resolution x-ray crystal structure for cardiolipin. The possible significance of this interaction between an integral membrane protein and cardiolipin is considered.

Specific interaction of mutant p53 with regions of matrix attachment region DNA elements (MARs) with a high potential for base-unpairing

Mutant, but not wild-type p53 binds with high affinity to a variety of MAR-DNA elements (MARs), suggesting that MAR-binding of mutant p53 relates to the dominant-oncogenic activities proposed for mutant p53. MARs recognized by mutant p53 share AT richness and contain variations of an AATATATTT “DNA-unwinding motif,” which enhances the structural dynamics of chromatin and promotes regional DNA base-unpairing. Mutant p53 specifically interacted with MAR-derived oligonucleotides carrying such unwinding motifs, catalyzing DNA strand separation when this motif was located within a structurally labile sequence environment. Addition of GC-clamps to the respective MAR-oligonucleotides or introducing mutations into the unwinding motif strongly reduced DNA strand separation, but supported the formation of tight complexes between mutant p53 and such oligonucleotides. We conclude that the specific interaction of mutant p53 with regions of MAR-DNA with a high potential for base-unpairing provides the basis for the high-affinity binding of mutant p53 to MAR-DNA.

Chemical phenotype matching between a plant and its insect herbivore

Two potential outcomes of a coevolutionary interaction are an escalating arms race and stable cycling. The general expectation has been that arms races predominate in cases of polygenic inheritance of resistance traits and permanent cycling predominates in cases in which resistance is controlled by major genes. In the interaction between Depressaria pastinacella, the parsnip webworm, and Pastinaca sativa, the wild parsnip, traits for plant resistance to insect herbivory (production of defensive furanocoumarins) as well as traits for herbivore “virulence” (ability to metabolize furanocoumarins) are characterized by continuous heritable variation. Furanocoumarin production in plants and rates of metabolism in insects were compared among four midwestern populations; these traits then were classified into four clusters describing multitrait phenotypes occurring in all or most of the populations. When the frequency of plant phenotypes belonging to each of the clusters is compared with the frequency of the insect phenotypes in each of the clusters across populations, a remarkable degree of frequency matching is revealed in three of the populations. That frequencies of phenotypes vary among populations is consistent with the fact that spatial variation occurs in the temporal cycling of phenotypes; such processes contribute in generating a geographic mosaic in this coevolutionary interaction on the landscape scale. Comparisons of contemporary plant phenotype distributions with phenotypes of herbarium specimens collected 9–125 years ago from across a similar latitudinal gradient, however, suggest that for at least one resistance trait—sphondin concentration—interactions with webworms have led to escalatory change.

Mycoparasitic interaction relieves binding of the Cre1 carbon catabolite repressor protein to promoter sequences of the ech42 (endochitinase-encoding) gene in Trichoderma harzianum

The fungus Trichoderma harzianum is a potent mycoparasite of various plant pathogenic fungi. We have studied the molecular regulation of mycoparasitism in the host/mycoparasite system Botrytis cinerea/T. harzianum. Protein extracts, prepared from various stages of mycoparasitism, were used in electrophoretic mobility-shift assays (EMSAs) with two promoter fragments of the ech-42 (42-kDa endochitinase-encoding) gene of T. harzianum. This gene was chosen as a model because its expression is triggered during mycoparasitic interaction [Carsolio, C., Gutierrez, A., Jimenez, B., van Montagu, M. & Herrera-Estrella, A. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 10903–10907]. All cell-free extracts formed high-molecular weight protein–DNA complexes, but those obtained from mycelia activated for mycoparasitic attack formed a complex with greater mobility. Competition experiments, using oligonucleotides containing functional and nonfunctional consensus sites for binding of the carbon catabolite repressor Cre1, provided evidence that the complex from nonmycoparasitic mycelia involves the binding of Cre1 to both fragments of the ech-42 promoter. The presence of two and three consensus sites for binding of Cre1 in the two ech-42 promoter fragments used is consistent with these findings. In contrast, the formation of the protein–DNA complex from mycoparasitic mycelia is unaffected by the addition of the competing oligonucleotides and hence does not involve Cre1. Addition of equal amounts of protein of cell-free extracts from nonmycoparasitic mycelia converted the mycoparasitic DNA–protein complex into the nonmycoparasitic complex. The addition of the purified Cre1::glutathione S-transferase protein to mycoparasitic cell-free extracts produced the same effect. These findings suggest that ech-42 expression in T. harzianum is regulated by (i) binding of Cre1 to two single sites in the ech-42 promoter, (ii) binding of a “mycoparasitic” protein–protein complex to the ech-42 promoter in vicinity of the Cre1 binding sites, and (iii) functional inactivation of Cre1 upon mycoparasitic interaction to enable the formation of the mycoparasitic protein–DNA complex.

The aphid transmission factor of cauliflower mosaic virus forms a stable complex with microtubules in both insect and plant cells

We analyzed the distribution of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) aphid transmission factor (ATF), produced via a baculovirus recombinant, within Sf9 insect cells. Immunogold labeling revealed that the ATF colocalizes with an atypical cytoskeletal network. Detailed observation by electron microscopy demonstrated that this network was composed of microtubules decorated with paracrystalline formations, characteristic of the CaMV ATF. A derivative mutant of the ATF, unable to self-assemble into paracrystals, was also analyzed. This mutant formed a net-like structure, with a mesh of four nanometers, tightly sheathing microtubules. Both the ATF– and the derivative mutant–microtubule complexes were highly stable. They resisted dilution-, cold-, and calcium-induced microtubule disassembly as well as a combination of all three for over 6 hr. CaMV ATF cosedimented with microtubules and, surprisingly, it bound to Taxol-stabilized microtubules at high ionic strength, thus suggesting an atypical interaction when compared with that usually described for microtubule-binding proteins. Using immunofluorescence double labeling we also demonstrated that the CaMV ATF colocalizes with the microtubule network when expressed in plant cells.

Interaction of NPR1 with basic leucine zipper protein transcription factors that bind sequences required for salicylic acid induction of the PR-1 gene

The Arabidopsis thaliana NPR1 has been shown to be a key regulator of gene expression during the onset of a plant disease-resistance response known as systemic acquired resistance. The npr1 mutant plants fail to respond to systemic acquired resistance-inducing signals such as salicylic acid (SA), or express SA-induced pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. Using NPR1 as bait in a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified a subclass of transcription factors in the basic leucine zipper protein family (AHBP-1b and TGA6) and showed that they interact specifically in yeast and in vitro with NPR1. Point mutations that abolish the NPR1 function in A. thaliana also impair the interactions between NPR1 and the transcription factors in the yeast two-hybrid assay. Furthermore, a gel mobility shift assay showed that the purified transcription factor protein, AHBP-1b, binds specifically to an SA-responsive promoter element of the A. thaliana PR-1 gene. These data suggest that NPR1 may regulate PR-1 gene expression by interacting with a subclass of basic leucine zipper protein transcription factors.

The incompatible interaction between Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae race 0 and tobacco is suppressed in transgenic plants expressing antisense lipoxygenase sequences

Nicotiana tabacum 46-8 cultivar displays an incompatible interaction with race 0 of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae (Ppn), a fungal pathogen of most tobacco cultivars. At the plant level, incompatibility is characterized by the induction of lipoxygenase (LOX, EC = 1.13.11.12) activity and localized hypersensitive cell death before defense gene activation. To evaluate the involvement of LOX in the onset of plant defense, tobacco 46-8 plants were genetically engineered using full-length or partial-length antisense (AS) tobacco LOX cDNA constructs. AS expression strongly reduced elicitor- and pathogen-induced LOX activity. Eight independent AS-LOX lines were selected and assayed for their response to Ppn. After root or stem inoculation with race 0, all AS-LOX lines but one displayed a compatible phenotype whereas control transformed plants, not containing the AS-LOX cassette, showed the typical incompatible reaction. The presence of the fungus in transgenic lines was demonstrated by PCR amplification of a Ppn-specific genomic sequence. A linear relationship was found between the extent of LOX suppression and the size of the lesion caused by the fungus. The AS-LOX plants also showed enhanced susceptibility toward the compatible fungus Rhizoctonia solani. The results demonstrate the strong involvement of LOX in the establishment of incompatibility in plant–microorganism interactions, consistent with its role in the defense of host plants.