Depletion of Acyl-Coenzyme A-Binding Protein Affects Sphingolipid Synthesis and Causes Vesicle Accumulation and Membrane Defects in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Deletion of the yeast gene ACB1 encoding Acb1p, the yeast homologue of the acyl-CoA-binding protein (ACBP), resulted in a slower growing phenotype that adapted into a faster growing phenotype with a frequency >1:105. A conditional knockout strain (Y700pGAL1-ACB1) with the ACB1 gene under control of the GAL1 promoter exhibited an altered acyl-CoA profile with a threefold increase in the relative content of C18:0-CoA, without affecting total acyl-CoA level as previously reported for an adapted acb1Δ strain. Depletion of Acb1p did not affect the general phospholipid pattern, the rate of phospholipid synthesis, or the turnover of individual phospholipid classes, indicating that Acb1p is not required for general glycerolipid synthesis. In contrast, cells depleted for Acb1p showed a dramatically reduced content of C26:0 in total fatty acids and the sphingolipid synthesis was reduced by 50–70%. The reduced incorporation of [3H]myo-inositol into sphingolipids was due to a reduced incorporation into inositol-phosphoceramide and mannose-inositol-phosphoceramide only, a pattern that is characteristic for cells with aberrant endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi transport. The plasma membrane of the Acb1p-depleted strain contained increased levels of inositol-phosphoceramide and mannose-inositol-phosphoceramide and lysophospholipids. Acb1p-depleted cells accumulated 50- to 60-nm vesicles and autophagocytotic like bodies and showed strongly perturbed plasma membrane structures. The present results strongly suggest that Acb1p plays an important role in fatty acid elongation and membrane assembly and organization.

Potentiation of the Oxidative Burst and Isoflavonoid Phytoalexin Accumulation by Serine Protease Inhibitors1

Treatment of soybean (Glycine max L. cv Williams 82) cell-suspension cultures with Pseudomonas syringae pv glycinea (Psg) harboring an avirulence gene (avrA) or with yeast elicitor resulted in an oxidative burst characterized by the accumulation of H2O2. This burst, and the resultant induction of glutathione S-transferase transcripts, occurred more rapidly and was more prolonged if cells were simultaneously treated with serine protease inhibitors such as phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) or diisopropylfluorophosphate. PMSF and diisopropylfluorophosphate potentiate a large oxidative burst in cells exposed to Psg harboring the avrC avirulence gene, which is not recognized by the soybean cultivar used in this study. The potentiated burst was inhibited by diphenylene iodonium, an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, and by the protein kinase inhibitor K252a. PMSF treatment of elicited cells or cells exposed to Psg:avrA caused a large increase in the accumulation of the isoflavonoid phytoalexin glyceollin; however, this was not associated with increased levels of transcripts encoding key phytoalexin biosynthetic enzymes. Glyceollin accumulation was inhibited by diphenylene iodonium; however, the oxidative burst in cells treated with Psg:avrC and PMSF was not followed by phytoalexin accumulation. We conclude that active oxygen species from the oxidative burst are necessary but not sufficient for inducing isoflavonoid phytoalexin accumulation in soybean cells.

High-level production of recombinant human lysosomal acid alpha-glucosidase in Chinese hamster ovary cells which targets to heart muscle and corrects glycogen accumulation in fibroblasts from patients with Pompe disease.

Infantile Pompe disease is a fatal genetic muscle disorder caused by a deficiency of acid alpha-glucosidase, a glycogen-degrading lysosomal enzyme. We constructed a plasmid containing a 5'-shortened human acid alpha-glucosidase cDNA driven by the cytomegalovirus promoter, as well as the aminoglycoside phosphotransferase and dihydrofolate reductase genes. Following transfection in dihydrofolate reductase-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cells, selection with Geneticin, and amplification with methotrexate, a cell line producing high levels of the alpha-glucosidase was established. In 48 hr, the cells cultured in Iscove's medium with 5 mM butyrate secreted 110-kDa precursor enzyme that accumulated to 91 micrograms.ml-1 in the medium (activity, > 22.6 mumol.hr-1.ml-1). This enzyme has a pH optimum similar to that of the mature form, but a lower Vmax and Km for 4-methylumbelliferyl-alpha-D-glucoside. It is efficiently taken up by fibroblasts from Pompe patients, restoring normal levels of acid alpha-glucosidase and glycogen. The uptake is blocked by mannose 6-phosphate. Following intravenous injection, high enzyme levels are seen in heart and liver. An efficient production system now exists for recombinant human acid alpha-glucosidase targeted to heart and capable of correcting fibroblasts from patients with Pompe disease.

Rates of decomposition of ribose and other sugars: implications for chemical evolution.

The existence of the RNA world, in which RNA acted as a catalyst as well as an informational macromolecule, assumes a large prebiotic source of ribose or the existence of pre-RNA molecules with backbones different from ribose-phosphate. The generally accepted prebiotic synthesis of ribose, the formose reaction, yields numerous sugars without any selectivity. Even if there were a selective synthesis of ribose, there is still the problem of stability. Sugars are known to be unstable in strong acid or base, but there are few data for neutral solutions. Therefore, we have measured the rate of decomposition of ribose between pH 4 and pH 8 from 40 degrees C to 120 degrees C. The ribose half-lives are very short (73 min at pH 7.0 and 100 degrees C and 44 years at pH 7.0 and 0 degrees C). The other aldopentoses and aldohexoses have half-lives within an order of magnitude of these values, as do 2-deoxyribose, ribose 5-phosphate, and ribose 2,4-bisphosphate. These results suggest that the backbone of the first genetic material could not have contained ribose or other sugars because of their instability.

Methyl Jasmonate Induces Lauric Acid ω-Hydroxylase Activity and Accumulation of CYP94A1 Transcripts but Does Not Affect Epoxide Hydrolase Activities in Vicia sativa Seedlings1

Treatment of etiolated Vicia sativa seedlings by the plant hormone methyl jasmonate (MetJA) led to an increase of cytochrome P450 content. Seedlings that were treated for 48 h in a 1 mm solution of MetJA stimulated ω-hydroxylation of 12:0 (lauric acid) 14-fold compared with the control (153 versus 11 pmol min−1 mg−1 protein, respectively). Induction was dose dependent. The increase of activity (2.7-fold) was already detectable after 3 h of treatment. Activity increased as a function of time and reached a steady level after 24 h. Northern-blot analysis revealed that the transcripts coding for CYP94A1, a fatty acid ω-hydroxylase, had already accumulated after 1 h of exposure to MetJA and was maximal between 3 and 6 h. Under the same conditions, a study of the enzymatic hydrolysis of 9,10-epoxystearic acid showed that both microsomal and soluble epoxide hydrolase activities were not affected by MetJA treatment.

Overexpression of Glutathione Synthetase in Indian Mustard Enhances Cadmium Accumulation and Tolerance1

An important pathway by which plants detoxify heavy metals is through sequestration with heavy-metal-binding peptides called phytochelatins or their precursor, glutathione. To identify limiting factors for heavy-metal accumulation and tolerance, and to develop transgenic plants with an increased capacity to accumulate and/or tolerate heavy metals, the Escherichia coli gshII gene encoding glutathione synthetase (GS) was overexpressed in the cytosol of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). The transgenic GS plants accumulated significantly more Cd than the wild type: shoot Cd concentrations were up to 25% higher and total Cd accumulation per shoot was up to 3-fold higher. Moreover, the GS plants showed enhanced tolerance to Cd at both the seedling and mature-plant stages. Cd accumulation and tolerance were correlated with the gshII expression level. Cd-treated GS plants had higher concentrations of glutathione, phytochelatin, thiol, S, and Ca than wild-type plants. We conclude that in the presence of Cd, the GS enzyme is rate limiting for the biosynthesis of glutathione and phytochelatins, and that overexpression of GS offers a promising strategy for the production of plants with superior heavy-metal phytoremediation capacity.

Induction of a Carbon-Starvation-Related Proteolysis in Whole Maize Plants Submitted to Light/Dark Cycles and to Extended Darkness1

Three-week-old maize (Zea mays L.) plants were submitted to light/dark cycles and to prolonged darkness to investigate the occurrence of sugar-limitation effects in different parts of the whole plant. Soluble sugars fluctuated with light/dark cycles and dropped sharply during extended darkness. Significant decreases in protein level were observed after prolonged darkness in mature roots, root tips, and young leaves. Glutamine and asparagine (Asn) changed in opposite ways, with Asn increasing in the dark. After prolonged darkness the increase in Asn accounted for most of the nitrogen released by protein breakdown. Using polyclonal antibodies against a vacuolar root protease previously described (F. James, R. Brouquisse, C. Suire, A. Pradet, P. Raymond [1996] Biochem J 320: 283–292) or the 20S proteasome, we showed that the increase in proteolytic activities was related to an enrichment of roots in the vacuolar protease, with no change in the amount of 20S proteasome in either roots or leaves. Our results show that no significant net proteolysis is induced in any part of the plant during normal light/dark cycles, although changes in metabolism and growth appear soon after the beginning of the dark period, and starvation-related proteolysis probably appears in prolonged darkness earlier in sink than in mature tissues.

A DNA damage and stress inducible G protein-coupled receptor blocks cells in G2/M

Cell cycle progression is monitored by highly coordinated checkpoint machinery, which is activated to induce cell cycle arrest until defects like DNA damage are corrected. We have isolated an anti-proliferative cell cycle regulator named G2A (for G2 accumulation), which is predominantly expressed in immature T and B lymphocyte progenitors and is a member of the seven membrane-spanning G protein-coupled receptor family. G2A overexpression attenuates the transformation potential of BCR-ABL and other oncogenes, and leads to accumulation of cells at G2/M independently of p53 and c-Abl. G2A can be induced in lymphocytes and to a lesser extent in nonlymphocyte cell lines or tissues by multiple stimuli including different classes of DNA-damaging agents and serves as a response to damage and cellular stimulation which functions to slow cell cycle progression.

Requirement of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in recovery from DNA damage in mice and in cells

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase [PARP; NAD+ ADP-ribosyltransferase; NAD+: poly(adenosine-diphosphate-d-ribosyl)-acceptor ADP-d-ribosyltransferase, EC 2.4.2.30] is a zinc-finger DNA-binding protein that detects specifically DNA strand breaks generated by genotoxic agents. To determine its biological function, we have inactivated both alleles by gene targeting in mice. Treatment of PARP−/− mice either by the alkylating agent N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) or by γ-irradiation revealed an extreme sensitivity and a high genomic instability to both agents. Following whole body γ-irradiation (8 Gy) mutant mice died rapidly from acute radiation toxicity to the small intestine. Mice-derived PARP−/− cells displayed a high sensitivity to MNU exposure: a G2/M arrest in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and a rapid apoptotic response and a p53 accumulation were observed in splenocytes. Altogether these results demonstrate that PARP is a survival factor playing an essential and positive role during DNA damage recovery.

Glycosylation differences between the normal and pathogenic prion protein isoforms

Prion protein consists of an ensemble of glycosylated variants or glycoforms. The enzymes that direct oligosaccharide processing, and hence control the glycan profile for any given glycoprotein, are often exquisitely sensitive to other events taking place within the cell in which the glycoprotein is expressed. Alterations in the populations of sugars attached to proteins can reflect changes caused, for example, by developmental processes or by disease. Here we report that normal (PrPC) and pathogenic (PrPSc) prion proteins (PrP) from Syrian hamsters contain the same set of at least 52 bi-, tri-, and tetraantennary N-linked oligosaccharides, although the relative proportions of individual glycans differ. This conservation of structure suggests that the conversion of PrPC into PrPSc is not confined to a subset of PrPs that contain specific sugars. Compared with PrPC, PrPSc contains decreased levels of glycans with bisecting GlcNAc residues and increased levels of tri- and tetraantennary sugars. This change is consistent with a decrease in the activity of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase III (GnTIII) toward PrPC in cells where PrPSc is formed and argues that, in at least some cells forming PrPSc, the glycosylation machinery has been perturbed. The reduction in GnTIII activity is intriguing both with respect to the pathogenesis of the prion disease and the replication pathway for prions.

Formation and Turnover of NSF- and SNAP-containing “Fusion” Complexes Occur on Undocked, Clathrin-coated Vesicle–derived Membranes

Specificity of vesicular transport is determined by pair-wise interaction between receptors (SNAP receptors or SNAREs) associated with a transport vesicle and its target membrane. Two additional factors, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein (NSF) and soluble NSF attachment protein (SNAP) are ubiquitous components of vesicular transport pathways. However, the precise role they play is not known. On the basis that NSF and SNAP can be recruited to preformed SNARE complexes, it has been proposed that NSF- and SNAP-containing complexes are formed after SNARE-dependent docking of transport vesicles. This would enable ATPase-dependent complex disassembly to be coupled directly to membrane fusion. Alternatively, binding and release of NSF/SNAP may occur before vesicle docking, and perhaps be involved in the activation of SNAREs. To gain more information about the point at which so-called 20S complexes form during the transport vesicle cycle, we have examined NSF/SNAP/SNARE complex turnover on clathrin-coated vesicle–derived membranes in situ. This has been achieved under conditions in which the extent of membrane docking can be precisely monitored. We demonstrate by UV-dependent cross-linking experiments, coupled to laser light-scattering analysis of membranes, that complexes containing NSF, SNAP, and SNAREs will form and dissociate on the surface of undocked transport vesicles.

The Role of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe gar2 Protein in Nucleolar Structure and Function Depends on the Concerted Action of its Highly Charged N Terminus and its RNA-binding Domains

Nonribosomal nucleolar protein gar2 is required for 18S rRNA and 40S ribosomal subunit production in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We have investigated the consequences of the absence of each structural domain of gar2 on cell growth, 18S rRNA production, and nucleolar structure. Deletion of gar2 RNA-binding domains (RBDs) causes stronger inhibition of growth and 18S rRNA accumulation than the absence of the whole protein, suggesting that other factors may be titrated by its remaining N-terminal basic/acidic serine-rich domain. These drastic functional defects correlate with striking nucleolar hypertrophy. Point mutations in the conserved RNP1 motifs of gar2 RBDs supposed to inhibit RNA–protein interactions are sufficient to induce severe nucleolar modifications but only in the presence of the N-terminal domain of the protein. Gar2 and its mutants also distribute differently in glycerol gradients: gar2 lacking its RBDs is found either free or assembled into significantly larger complexes than the wild-type protein. We propose that gar2 helps the assembly on rRNA of factors necessary for 40S subunit synthesis by providing a physical link between them. These factors may be recruited by the N-terminal domain of gar2 and may not be released if interaction of gar2 with rRNA is impaired.

Transcriptional Regulation of Fibroblast Growth Factor-2 Expression in Human Astrocytes: Implications for Cell Plasticity

Induction of the fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) gene and the consequent accumulation of FGF-2 in the nucleus are operative events in mitotic activation and hypertrophy of human astrocytes. In the brain, these events are associated with cellular degeneration and may reflect release of the FGF-2 gene from cell contact inhibition. We used cultures of human astrocytes to examine whether expression of FGF-2 is also controlled by soluble growth factors. Treatment of subconfluent astrocytes with interleukin-1β, epidermal or platelet-derived growth factors, 18-kDa FGF-2, or serum or direct stimulation of protein kinase C (PKC) with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or adenylate cyclase with forskolin increased the levels of 18-, 22-, and 24-kDa FGF-2 isoforms and FGF-2 mRNA. Transfection of FGF-2 promoter–luciferase constructs identified a unique −555/−513 bp growth factor-responsive element (GFRE) that confers high basal promoter activity and activation by growth factors to a downstream promoter region. It also identified a separate region (−624/−556 bp) essential for PKC and cAMP stimulation. DNA–protein binding assays indicated that novel cis-acting elements and trans-acting factors mediate activation of the FGF-2 gene. Southwestern analysis identified 40-, 50-, 60-, and 100-kDa GFRE-binding proteins and 165-, 112-, and 90-kDa proteins that interacted with the PKC/cAMP-responsive region. The GFRE and the element essential for PKC and cAMP stimulation overlap with the region that mediates cell contact inhibition of the FGF-2 promoter. The results show a two-stage regulation of the FGF-2 gene: 1) an initial induction by reduced cell contact, and 2) further activation by growth factors or the PKC-signaling pathway. The hierarchic regulation of the FGF-2 gene promoter by cell density and growth factors or PKC reflects a two-stage activation of protein binding to the GFRE and to the PKC/cAMP-responsive region, respectively.

Biogenesis of Polarized Epithelial Cells During Kidney Development In Situ: Roles of E-Cadherin–mediated Cell–Cell Adhesion and Membrane Cytoskeleton Organization

Organization of proteins into structurally and functionally distinct plasma membrane domains is an essential characteristic of polarized epithelial cells. Based on studies with cultured kidney cells, we have hypothesized that a mechanism for restricting Na/K-ATPase to the basal-lateral membrane involves E-cadherin–mediated cell–cell adhesion and integration of Na/K-ATPase into the Triton X-100–insoluble ankyrin- and spectrin-based membrane cytoskeleton. In this study, we examined the relevance of these in vitro observations to the generation of epithelial cell polarity in vivo during mouse kidney development. Using differential detergent extraction, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence histochemistry, we demonstrate the following. First, expression of the 220-kDa splice variant of ankyrin-3 correlates with the development of resistance to Triton X-100 extraction for Na/K-ATPase, E-cadherin, and catenins and precedes maximal accumulation of Na/K-ATPase. Second, expression of the 190-kDa slice variant of ankyrin-3 correlates with maximal accumulation of Na/K-ATPase. Third, Na/K-ATPase, ankyrin-3, and fodrin specifically colocalize at the basal-lateral plasma membrane of all epithelial cells in which they are expressed and during all stages of nephrogenesis. Fourth, the relative immunofluorescence staining intensities of Na/K-ATPase, ankyrin-3, and fodrin become more similar during development until they are essentially identical in adult kidney. Thus, renal epithelial cells in vivo regulate the accumulation of E-cadherin–mediated adherens junctions, the membrane cytoskeleton, and Na/K-ATPase through sequential protein expression and assembly on the basal-lateral membrane. These results are consistent with a mechanism in which generation and maintenance of polarized distributions of these proteins in vivo and in vitro involve cell–cell adhesion, assembly of the membrane cytoskeleton complex, and concomitant integration and retention of Na/K-ATPase in this complex.

Chimeric Cytokine Receptor Can Transduce Expansion Signals in Interleukin 6 Receptor α (IL-6Rα)-, IL-11Rα-, and gp130-low to -negative Primitive Hematopoietic Progenitors

We generated transgenic mice expressing chimeric receptors, which comprise extracellular domains of the human granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) receptor and transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of the mouse leukemia inhibitory factor receptor. In suspension cultures of lineage-negative (Lin−), 5-fluorouracil-resistant bone marrow cells of the transgenic mice, a combination of hGM-CSF and stem cell factor (SCF) induced exponential expansions of mixed colony-forming unit. The combination of hGM-CSF and SCF was effective on enriched, Lin−Sca-1+c-kit+ progenitors and increased either mixed colony-forming unit or cobblestone area–forming cells. In case of stimulation with hGM-CSF and SCF, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and SCF, or IL-11 and SCF, the most efficient expansion was achieved with hGM-CSF and SCF. When Lin−Sca-1+c-kit+CD34− further enriched progenitors were clone sorted and individually incubated in the presence of SCF, hGM-CSF stimulated a larger number of cells than did IL-6, IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptor (IL-6R), or IL-11. These data suggest the presence of IL-6Rα-, IL-11Rα-, and gp130-low to -negative primitive hematopoietic progenitors. Such primitive progenitors are equipped with signal transduction molecules and can expand when these chimeric receptors are genetically introduced into the cells and stimulated with hGM-CSF in the presence of SCF.