Analysis and interpretation of cost data in randomised controlled trials: review of published studies

Objective To review critically the statistical methods used for health economic evaluations in randomised controlled trials where an estimate of cost is available for each patient in the study.

Congruence of fatty acid methyl ester profiles and morphological characters of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Gigasporaceae.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (Order Glomales, Class Zygomycetes) are a diverse group of soil fungi that form mutualistic associations with the roots of most species of higher plants. Despite intensive study over the past 25 years, the phylogenetic relationships among AM fungi, and thus many details of evolution of the symbiosis, remain unclear. Cladistic analysis was performed on fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles of 15 species in Gigaspora and Scutellospora (family Gigasporaceae) by using a restricted maximum likelihood approach of continuous character data. Results were compared to a parsimony analysis of spore morphological characters of the same species. Only one tree was generated from each character set. Morphological and developmental data suggest that species with the simplest spore types are ancestral whereas those with complicated inner wall structures are derived. Spores of those species having a complex wall structure pass through stages of development identical to the mature stages of simpler spores, suggesting a pattern of classical Haeckelian recapitulation in evolution of spore characters. Analysis of FAME profiles supported this hypothesis when Glomus leptotichum was used as the outgroup. However, when Glomus etunicatum was chosen as the outgroup, the polarity of the entire tree was reversed. Our results suggest that FAME profiles contain useful information and provide independent criteria for generating phylogenetic hypotheses in AM fungi. The maximum likelihood approach to analyzing FAME profiles also may prove useful for many other groups of organisms in which profiles are empirically shown to be stable and heritable.

Positive selection and rates of evolution in immunodeficiency viruses from humans and chimpanzees.

Evolutionary theory predicts the recent spread of primate immunodeficiency viruses (PIVs) to new human populations to be accompanied by positive selection in response to new host environments and/or by random genetic drift. I assess evidence for positive selection in human and chimpanzee PIVs type I (PIV1s), using ratios of synonymous to nonsynonymous nucleotide change based on branch lengths and outgroup rooting. Ratios are smaller for PIV1s from humans than for PIV1 from a chimpanzee for the pol, gag, and env glycoprotein 120 (gp120) regions, indicating greater effects of positive selection in PIV1s from humans. Parsimony-based relative rate tests for amino acid changes showed significant differences between PIV1s from humans and chimpanzees in 18 of 48 pairwise comparisons, with all 18 showing faster rates of change in PIV1s from humans. This study indicates that in some instances, the recent evolution of human PIV1s follows a speciational pattern, in which increased diversification of taxa is correlated with greater amounts of character change appearing and being maintained through time. This extends the generality of the speciational pattern to a group of organisms (viruses) having the fastest known rates of anagenetic change for nucleotide characters and indicates that comprehensive understanding of PIV1 evolution requires consideration of both anagenetic change within viral lineages and the relative historical success of different viral clades. Phylogenetic analyses show that neither PIV1s infecting humans nor those infecting chimpanzees represent monophyletic groups and suggest multiple host-species shifts for PIV1s.