Suppression of breast cancer growth and metastasis by a serpin myoepithelium-derived serine proteinase inhibitor expressed in the mammary myoepithelial cells

A serpin was identified in normal mammary gland by differential cDNA sequencing. In situ hybridization has detected this serpin exclusively in the myoepithelial cells on the normal and noninvasive mammary epithelial side of the basement membrane and thus was named myoepithelium-derived serine proteinase inhibitor (MEPI). No MEPI expression was detected in the malignant breast carcinomas. MEPI encodes a 405-aa precursor, including an 18-residue secretion signal with a calculated molecular mass of 46 kDa. The predicted sequence of the new protein shares 33% sequence identity and 58% sequence similarity to plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 and PAI-2. To determine whether MEPI can modulate the in vivo growth and progression of human breast cancers, we transfected a full-length MEPI cDNA into human breast cancer cells and studied the orthotopic growth of MEPI-transfected vs. control clones in the mammary fat pad of athymic nude mice. Overexpression of MEPI inhibited the invasion of the cells in the in vitro invasion assay. When injected orthotopically into nude mice, the primary tumor volumes, axillary lymph node metastasis, and lung metastasis were significantly inhibited in MEPI-transfected clones as compared with controls. The expression of MEPI in myoepithelial cells may prevent breast cancer malignant progression leading to metastasis.

Ephrin-dependent growth and pruning of hippocampal axons

Neuronal connections are arranged topographically such that the spatial organization of neurons is preserved by their termini in the targets. During the development of topographic projections, axons initially explore areas much wider than the final targets, and mistargeted axons are pruned later. The molecules regulating these processes are not known. We report here that the ligands of the Eph family tyrosine kinase receptors may regulate both the initial outgrowth and the subsequent pruning of axons. In the presence of ephrins, the outgrowth and branching of the receptor-positive hippocampal axons are enhanced. However, these axons are induced later to degenerate. These observations suggest that the ephrins and their receptors may regulate topographic map formation by stimulating axonal arborization and by pruning mistargeted axons.

Growth and viability of macrophages continuously stimulated to produce nitric oxide

Deregulated production of nitric oxide (NO) has been implicated in the development of certain human diseases, including cancer. We sought to assess the damaging potential of NO produced under long-term conditions through the development of a suitable model cell culture system. In this study, we report that when murine macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells were exposed continuously to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or mouse recombinant interferon-γ (IFN-γ) over periods of 21–23 days, they continued to grow, but with doubling times 2 to 4 times, respectively, longer than the doubling time of unstimulated cells. Stimulated cells produced NO at rates of 30 to 70 nmol per million cells per day throughout the stimulation period. Within 24 hr after removal of stimulant, cells resumed exponential growth. Simultaneous exposure to LPS and IFN-γ resulted in decreased cell number, which persisted for 2 days after removal of the stimulants. Exponential growth was attained only after an additional 4 days. Addition of N-methyl-l-arginine (NMA), an NO synthase inhibitor, to the medium inhibited NO production by 90% of all stimulated cells, partially reduced doubling time of cells stimulated with LPS or IFN-γ, and partially increased viability and growth rates in those exposed to both LPS and IFN-γ. However, when incubated with LPS and IFN-γ at low densities both in the presence and in the absence of NMA, cells grew at a rate slower than that of unstimulated cells, with no cell death, and they resumed exponential growth 24 hr after removal of stimulants. Results from cell density experiments suggest that macrophages are protected from intracellularly generated NO; much of the NO damaging activity occurred outside of the producer cells. Collectively, results presented in this study suggest that the type of cellular toxicity observed in macrophages is markedly influenced by rate of exposure to NO: at low rates of exposure, cells exhibit slower growth; at higher rates, cells begin to die; at even higher rates, cells undergo growth arrest or die. The ability of RAW264.7 cells to produce NO over many cell generations makes the cell line a useful system for the study of other aspects of cellular damage, including genotoxicity, resulting from exposure to NO under long-term conditions.

The effect of overexpression of the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPMEG on cell growth and on colony formation in soft agar in COS-7 cells

We established stable COS-7 cell lines overexpressing recombinant PTPMEG and an inactive mutant form in which the active site cysteine is mutated to serine (PTPMEGCS). We found that both endogenous and recombinant enzyme were primarily located in the membrane and cytoskeletal fractions of COS-7 cells. Endogenous PTPMEG accounts for only 1/3000th of the total tyrosine phosphatase activity in COS-7 cells and transfected cells expressed 2- to 7-fold higher levels of the enzyme. These levels of overexpression did not result in detectable changes in either total tyrosine phosphatase activity or the state of protein tyrosine phosphorylation as determined by immunoblotting of cell homogenates with anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies. Despite the low levels of activity for PTPMEG, we found that overexpressing cells grew slower and reached confluence at a lower density than vector transfected cells. Surprisingly, PTPMEGCS-transfected cells also reach confluence at a lower density than vector-transfected cells, although they grow to higher density than PTPMEG-transfected cells. Both constructs inhibited the ability of COS-7 cells to form colonies in soft agar, with the native PTPMEG having a greater effect (30-fold) than PTPMEGCS (10-fold). These results indicate that in COS-7 cells both PTPMEG and PTPMEGCS inhibit cell proliferation, reduce the saturation density, and block the ability of these cells to grow without adhering to a solid matrix.

Thrombospondin-2: A potent endogenous inhibitor of tumor growth and angiogenesis

Recent evidence suggests a potential role for thrombospondin-2 (TSP-2), a matricellular glycoprotein, in the regulation of primary angiogenesis. To directly examine the biological effect of TSP-2 expression on tumor growth and angiogenesis, human A431 squamous cell carcinoma cells, which do not express TSP-2, were stably transfected with a murine TSP-2 expression vector or with vector alone. A431 cells expressing TSP-2 did not show an altered growth rate, colony-forming ability, or susceptibility to induction of apoptosis in vitro. However, injection of TSP-2-transfected clones into the dermis of nude mice resulted in pronounced inhibition of tumor growth that was significantly stronger than the inhibition observed in A431 clones stably transfected with a thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) expression vector, and combined overexpression of TSP-1 and TSP-2 completely prevented tumor formation. Extensive areas of necrosis were observed in TSP-2-expressing tumors, and both the density and the size of tumor vessels were significantly reduced, although tumor cell expression of the major tumor angiogenesis factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, was maintained at high levels. These findings establish TSP-2 as a potent endogenous inhibitor of tumor growth and angiogenesis.

A Modulatory Role for Clathrin Light Chain Phosphorylation in Golgi Membrane Protein Localization during Vegetative Growth and during the Mating Response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The role of clathrin light chain phosphorylation in regulating clathrin function has been examined in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The phosphorylation state of yeast clathrin light chain (Clc1p) in vivo was monitored by [32P]phosphate labeling and immunoprecipitation. Clc1p was phosphorylated in growing cells and also hyperphosphorylated upon activation of the mating response signal transduction pathway. Mating pheromone-stimulated hyperphosphorylation of Clc1p was dependent on the mating response signal transduction pathway MAP kinase Fus3p. Both basal and stimulated phosphorylation occurred exclusively on serines. Mutagenesis of Clc1p was used to map major phosphorylation sites to serines 52 and 112, but conversion of all 14 serines in Clc1p to alanines [S(all)A] was necessary to eliminate phosphorylation. Cells expressing the S(all)A mutant Clc1p displayed no defects in Clc1p binding to clathrin heavy chain, clathrin trimer stability, sorting of a soluble vacuolar protein, or receptor-mediated endocytosis of mating pheromone. However, the trans-Golgi network membrane protein Kex2p was not optimally localized in mutant cells. Furthermore, pheromone treatment exacerbated the Kex2p localization defect and caused a corresponding defect in Kex2p-mediated maturation of the α-factor precursor. The results reveal a novel requirement for clathrin during the mating response and suggest that phosphorylation of the light chain subunit modulates the activity of clathrin at the trans-Golgi network.

A Fungal Kinesin Required for Organelle Motility, Hyphal Growth, and Morphogenesis

A gene (NhKIN1) encoding a kinesin was cloned from Nectria haematococca genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction amplification, using primers corresponding to conserved regions of known kinesin-encoding genes. Sequence analysis showed that NhKIN1 belongs to the subfamily of conventional kinesins and is distinct from any of the currently designated kinesin-related protein subfamilies. Deletion of NhKIN1 by transformation-mediated homologous recombination caused several dramatic phenotypes: a 50% reduction in colony growth rate, helical or wavy hyphae with reduced diameter, and subcellular abnormalities including withdrawal of mitochondria from the growing hyphal apex and reduction in the size of the Spitzenkörper, an apical aggregate of secretory vesicles. The effects on mitochondria and Spitzenkörper were not due to altered microtubule distribution, as microtubules were abundant throughout the length of hyphal tip cells of the mutant. The rate of spindle elongation during anaphase B of mitosis was reduced 11%, but the rate was not significantly different from that of wild type. This lack of a substantial mitotic phenotype is consistent with the primary role of the conventional kinesins in organelle motility rather than mitosis. Our results provide further evidence that the microtubule-based motility mechanism has a direct role in apical transport of secretory vesicles and the first evidence for its role in apical transport of mitochondria in a filamentous fungus. They also include a unique demonstration that a microtubule-based motor protein is essential for normal positioning of the Spitzenkörper, thus providing a new insight into the cellular basis for the aberrant hyphal morphology.

The Yck2 Yeast Casein Kinase 1 Isoform Shows Cell Cycle-specific Localization to Sites of Polarized Growth and Is Required for Proper Septin Organization

Casein kinase 1 protein kinases are ubiquitous and abundant Ser/Thr-specific protein kinases with activity on acidic substrates. In yeast, the products of the redundant YCK1 and YCK2 genes are together essential for cell viability. Mutants deficient for these proteins display defects in cellular morphogenesis, cytokinesis, and endocytosis. Yck1p and Yck2p are peripheral plasma membrane proteins, and we report here that the localization of Yck2p within the membrane is dynamic through the cell cycle. Using a functional green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion, we have observed that Yck2p is concentrated at sites of polarized growth during bud morphogenesis. At cytokinesis, GFP–Yck2p becomes associated with a ring at the bud neck and then appears as a patch of fluorescence, apparently coincident with the dividing membranes. The bud neck association of Yck2p at cytokinesis does not require an intact septin ring, and septin assembly is altered in a Yck-deficient mutant. The sites of GFP–Yck2p concentration and the defects observed for Yck-deficient cells together suggest that Yck plays distinct roles in morphogenesis and cytokinesis that are effected by differential localization.

The Rho-GEF Rom2p Localizes to Sites of Polarized Cell Growth and Participates in Cytoskeletal Functions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Rom2p is a GDP/GTP exchange factor for Rho1p and Rho2p GTPases; Rho proteins have been implicated in control of actin cytoskeletal rearrangements. ROM2 and RHO2 were identified in a screen for high-copy number suppressors of cik1Δ, a mutant defective in microtubule-based processes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A Rom2p::3XHA fusion protein localizes to sites of polarized cell growth, including incipient bud sites, tips of small buds, and tips of mating projections. Disruption of ROM2 results in temperature-sensitive growth defects at 11°C and 37°C. rom2Δ cells exhibit morphological defects. At permissive temperatures, rom2Δ cells often form elongated buds and fail to form normal mating projections after exposure to pheromone; at the restrictive temperature, small budded cells accumulate. High-copy number plasmids containing either ROM2 or RHO2 suppress the temperature-sensitive growth defects of cik1Δ and kar3Δ strains. KAR3 encodes a kinesin-related protein that interacts with Cik1p. Furthermore, rom2Δ strains exhibit increased sensitivity to the microtubule depolymerizing drug benomyl. These results suggest a role for Rom2p in both polarized morphogenesis and functions of the microtubule cytoskeleton.

Derepressed Hyphal Growth and Reduced Virulence in a VH1 Family-related Protein Phosphatase Mutant of the Human Pathogen Candida albicans

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are pivotal components of eukaryotic signaling cascades. Phosphorylation of tyrosine and threonine residues activates MAP kinases, but either dual-specificity or monospecificity phosphatases can inactivate them. The Candida albicans CPP1 gene, a structural member of the VH1 family of dual- specificity phosphatases, was previously cloned by its ability to block the pheromone response MAP kinase cascade in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cpp1p inactivated mammalian MAP kinases in vitro and acted as a tyrosine-specific enzyme. In C. albicans a MAP kinase cascade can trigger the transition from the budding yeast form to a more invasive filamentous form. Disruption of the CPP1 gene in C. albicans derepressed the yeast to hyphal transition at ambient temperatures, on solid surfaces. A hyphal growth rate defect under physiological conditions in vitro was also observed and could explain a reduction in virulence associated with reduced fungal burden in the kidneys seen in a systemic mouse model. A hyper-hyphal pathway may thus have some detrimental effects on C. albicans cells. Disruption of the MAP kinase homologue CEK1 suppressed the morphological effects of the CPP1 disruption in C. albicans. The results presented here demonstrate the biological importance of a tyrosine phosphatase in cell-fate decisions and virulence in C. albicans.

Estrogen receptor specificity in the regulation of skeletal growth and maturation in male mice

Androgens may regulate the male skeleton directly through a stimulation of androgen receptors or indirectly through aromatization of androgens into estrogen and, thereafter, through stimulation of estrogen receptors (ERs). The relative importance of ER subtypes in the regulation of the male skeleton was studied in ERα-knockout (ERKO), ERβ-knockout (BERKO), and double ERα/β-knockout (DERKO) mice. ERKO and DERKO, but not BERKO, demonstrated decreased longitudinal as well as radial skeletal growth associated with decreased serum levels of insulin-like growth factor I. Therefore, ERα, but not ERβ, mediates important effects of estrogen in the skeleton of male mice during growth and maturation.

Postgerminative growth and lipid catabolism in oilseeds lacking the glyoxylate cycle

The glyoxylate cycle is regarded as essential for postgerminative growth and seedling establishment in oilseed plants. We have identified two allelic Arabidopsis mutants, icl-1 and icl-2, which lack the glyoxylate cycle because of the absence of the key enzyme isocitrate lyase. These mutants demonstrate that the glyoxylate cycle is not essential for germination. Furthermore, photosynthesis can compensate for the absence of the glyoxylate cycle during postgerminative growth, and only when light intensity or day length is decreased does seedling establishment become compromised. The provision of exogenous sugars can overcome this growth deficiency. The icl mutants also demonstrate that the glyoxylate cycle is important for seedling survival and recovery after prolonged dark conditions that approximate growth in nature. Surprisingly, despite their inability to catalyze the net conversion of acetate to carbohydrate, mutant seedlings are able to break down storage lipids. Results suggest that lipids can be used as a source of carbon for respiration in germinating oilseeds and that products of fatty acid catabolism can pass from the peroxisome to the mitochondrion independently of the glyoxylate cycle. However, an additional anaplerotic source of carbon is required for lipid breakdown and seedling establishment. This source can be provided by the glyoxylate cycle or, in its absence, by exogenous sucrose or photosynthesis.

A peptide derived from the non-receptor-binding region of urokinase plasminogen activator inhibits glioblastoma growth and angiogenesis in vivo in combination with cisplatin

The urokinase plasminogen activator system is involved in angiogenesis and tumor growth of malignant gliomas, which are highly neovascularized and so may be amenable to antiangiogenic therapy. In this paper, we describe the activity of Å6, an octamer capped peptide derived from the non-receptor-binding region of urokinase plasminogen activator. Å6 inhibited human microvascular endothelial cell migration but had no effect on the proliferation of human microvascular endothelial cells or U87MG glioma cells in vitro. In contrast, Å6 or cisplatin (CDDP) alone suppressed subcutaneous tumor growth in vivo by 48% and 53%, respectively, and, more strikingly, the combination of Å6 plus CDDP inhibited tumor growth by 92%. Such combination treatment also greatly reduced the volume of intracranial tumor xenografts and increased survival of tumor-bearing animals when compared with CDDP or Å6 alone. Tumors from the combination treatment group had significantly reduced neovascularization, suggesting a mechanism involving Å6-mediated inhibition of endothelial cell motility, thereby eliciting vascular sensitivity to CDDP-mediated toxicity. These data suggest that the combination of an angiogenesis inhibitor that targets endothelial cells with a cytotoxic agent may be a useful therapeutic approach.

Mice with a targeted mutation in the thyroid hormone β receptor gene exhibit impaired growth and resistance to thyroid hormone

Patients with mutations in the thyroid hormone receptor β (TRβ) gene manifest resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH), resulting in a constellation of variable phenotypic abnormalities. To understand the molecular basis underlying the action of mutant TRβ in vivo, we generated mice with a targeted mutation in the TRβ gene (TRβPV; PV, mutant thyroid hormone receptor kindred PV) by using homologous recombination and the Cre/loxP system. Mice expressing a single PVallele showed the typical abnormalities of thyroid function found in heterozygous humans with RTH. Homozygous PV mice exhibit severe dysfunction of the pituitary–thyroid axis, impaired weight gains, and abnormal bone development. This phenotype is distinct from that seen in mice with a null mutation in the TRβ gene. Importantly, we identified abnormal expression patterns of several genes in tissues of TRβPV mice, demonstrating the interference of the mutant TR with the gene regulatory functions of the wild-type TR in vivo. These results show that the actions of mutant and wild-type TRβ in vivo are distinct. This model allows further study of the molecular action of mutant TR in vivo, which could lead to better treatment for RTH patients.