Dpb11, which interacts with DNA polymerase II(epsilon) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has a dual role in S-phase progression and at a cell cycle checkpoint.

DPB11, a gene that suppresses mutations in two essential subunits of Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA polymerase II(epsilon) encoded by POL2 and DPB2, was isolated on a multicopy plasmid. The nucleotide sequence of the DPB11 gene revealed an open reading frame predicting an 87-kDa protein. This protein is homologous to the Schizosaccharomyces pombe rad4+/cut5+ gene product that has a cell cycle checkpoint function. Disruption of DPB11 is lethal, indicating that DPB11 is essential for cell proliferation. In thermosensitive dpb11-1 mutant cells, S-phase progression is defective at the nonpermissive temperature, followed by cell division with unequal chromosomal segregation accompanied by loss of viability.dpb11-1 is synthetic lethal with any one of the dpb2-1, pol2-11, and pol2-18 mutations at all temperatures. Moreover, dpb11 cells are sensitive to hydroxyurea, methyl methanesulfonate, and UV irradiation. These results strongly suggest that Dpb11 is a part of the DNA polymerase II complex during chromosomal DNA replication and also acts in a checkpoint pathway during the S phase of the cell cycle to sense stalled DNA replication.

Paracrine stimulation of interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) in the human endometrium by interleukin 1α and its dual block by ovarian steroids

In the cycling human endometrium, the expression of interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) and of several related matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) follows the late-secretory fall in sex steroid plasma concentrations and is thought to be a critical step leading to menstruation. The rapid and extensive lysis of interstitial matrix that precedes menstrual shedding requires a strict control of these proteinases. However, the mechanism by which ovarian steroids regulate endometrial MMPs remains unclear. We report here that, in the absence of ovarian steroids, MMP-1 expression in endometrial fibroblasts is markedly stimulated by medium conditioned by endometrial epithelial cells. This stimulation can be prevented by antibodies directed against interleukin 1α (IL-1α) but not against several other cytokines. Ovarian steroids inhibit the release of IL-1α and repress MMP-1 production by IL-1α-stimulated fibroblasts. In short-term cultures of endometrial explants obtained throughout the menstrual cycle, the release of both IL-1α and MMP-1 is essentially limited to the perimenstrual phase. We conclude that epithelium-derived IL-1α is the key paracrine inducer of MMP-1 in endometrial fibroblasts. However, MMP-1 production in the human endometrium is ultimately blocked by ovarian steroids, which act both upstream and downstream of IL-1α, thereby exerting an effective control via a “double-block” mechanism.

Dual Localization of Squalene Epoxidase, Erg1p, in Yeast Reflects a Relationship between the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Lipid Particles

Squalene epoxidase, encoded by the ERG1 gene in yeast, is a key enzyme of sterol biosynthesis. Analysis of subcellular fractions revealed that squalene epoxidase was present in the microsomal fraction (30,000 × g) and also cofractionated with lipid particles. A dual localization of Erg1p was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy. On the basis of the distribution of marker proteins, 62% of cellular Erg1p could be assigned to the endoplasmic reticulum and 38% to lipid particles in late logarithmic-phase cells. In contrast, sterol Δ24-methyltransferase (Erg6p), an enzyme catalyzing a late step in sterol biosynthesis, was found mainly in lipid particles cofractionating with triacylglycerols and steryl esters. The relative distribution of Erg1p between the endoplasmic reticulum and lipid particles changes during growth. Squalene epoxidase (Erg1p) was absent in an erg1 disruptant strain and was induced fivefold in lipid particles and in the endoplasmic reticulum when the ERG1 gene was overexpressed from a multicopy plasmid. The amount of squalene epoxidase in both compartments was also induced approximately fivefold by treatment of yeast cells with terbinafine, an inhibitor of the fungal squalene epoxidase. In contrast to the distribution of the protein, enzymatic activity of squalene epoxidase was only detectable in the endoplasmic reticulum but was absent from isolated lipid particles. When lipid particles of the wild-type strain and microsomes of an erg1 disruptant were mixed, squalene epoxidase activity was partially restored. These findings suggest that factor(s) present in the endoplasmic reticulum are required for squalene epoxidase activity. Close contact between lipid particles and endoplasmic reticulum may be necessary for a concerted action of these two compartments in sterol biosynthesis.

Streptogramin- and tetracycline-responsive dual regulated expression of p27Kip1 sense and antisense enables positive and negative growth control of Chinese hamster ovary cells

We constructed a dual regulated expression vector cassette (pDuoRex) whereby two heterologous genes can be independently regulated via streptogramin- and tetracycline-responsive promoters. Two different constructs containing growth-promoting and growth-inhibiting genes were stably transfected in recombinant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells that express the streptogramin- and tetracycline-dependent transactivators in a dicistronic configuration. An optimally balanced heterologous growth control scenario was achieved by reciprocal expression of the growth-inhibiting human cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1 in sense (p27Kip1S) and antisense (p27Kip1AS) orientation. Exclusive expression of p27Kip1S resulted in complete G1-phase-specific growth arrest, while expression of only p27Kip1AS showed significantly increased proliferation compared to control cultures (both antibiotics present), presumably by decreasing host cell p27Kip1 expression. In a second system, a derivative of pDuoRex encoding streptogramin-responsive expression of the growth-promoting SV40 small T antigen (sT) and tetracycline-regulated expression of p27Kip1 was stably transfected into CHO cells. Expression of sT alone resulted in an increase in cell proliferation, but the expression of p27Kip1 failed to provide the expected G1-specific growth arrest despite having demonstrated expression of the protein. This illustrates the difficulty in balancing the complex pathways underlying cell proliferation control through the expression of two functionally distinct genes involved in those pathways, and how a single-gene sense/antisense approach using pDuoRex can overcome this barrier to complete metabolic engineering control.

Mechanism in the Sequential Control of Cell Morphology and S Phase Entry by Epidermal Growth Factor Involves Distinct MEK/ERK Activations

Cell shape plays a role in cell growth, differentiation, and death. Herein, we used the hepatocyte, a normal, highly differentiated cell characterized by a long G1 phase, to understand the mechanisms that link cell shape to growth. First, evidence was provided that the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascade is a key transduction pathway controlling the hepatocyte morphology. MEK2/ERK2 activation in early G1 phase did not lead to cell proliferation but induced cell shape spreading and demonstration was provided that this MAPK-dependent spreading was required for reaching G1/S transition and DNA replication. Moreover, epidermal growth factor (EGF) was found to control this morphogenic signal in addition to its mitogenic effect. Thus, blockade of cell spreading by cytochalasin D or PD98059 treatment resulted in inhibition of EGF-dependent DNA replication. Our data led us to assess the first third of G1, is exclusively devoted to the growth factor-dependent morphogenic events, whereas the mitogenic signal occured at only approximately mid-G1 phase. Moreover, these two growth factor-related sequential signaling events involved successively activation of MEK2-ERK2 and then MEK1/2-ERK1/2 isoforms. In addition, we demonstrated that inhibition of extracellular matrix receptor, such as integrin β1 subunit, leads to cell arrest in G1, whereas EGF was found to up-regulated integrin β1 and fibronectin in a MEK-ERK–dependent manner. This process in relation to cytoskeletal reorganization could induce hepatocyte spreading, making them permissive for DNA replication. Our results provide new insight into the mechanisms by which a growth factor can temporally control dual morphogenic and mitogenic signals during the G1 phase.

Apoplastic Sugars, Fructans, Fructan Exohydrolase, and Invertase in Winter Oat: Responses to Second-Phase Cold Hardening

Changes in apoplastic carbohydrate concentrations and activities of carbohydrate-degrading enzymes were determined in crown tissues of oat (Avena sativa L., cv Wintok) during cold hardening. During second-phase hardening (−3°C for 3 d) levels of fructan, sucrose, glucose, and fructose in the apoplast increased significantly above that in nonhardened and first-phase-hardened plants. The extent of the increase in apoplastic fructan during second-phase hardening varied with the degree of fructan polymerization (DP) (e.g. DP3 and DP4 increased to a greater extent than DP7 and DP > 7). Activities of invertase and fructan exohydrolase in the crown apoplast increased approximately 4-fold over nonhardened and first-phase-hardened plants. Apoplastic fluid extracted from nonhardened, first-phase-hardened, and second-phase-hardened crown tissues had low levels, of symplastic contamination, as determined by malate dehydrogenase activity. The significance of these results in relation to increases in freezing tolerance from second-phase hardening is discussed.

Dual signal transduction through delta opioid receptors in a transfected human T-cell line.

Opiates are known to function as immunomodulators, in part by effects on T cells. However, the signal transduction pathways mediating the effects of opiates on T cells are largely undefined. To determine whether pathways that regulate free intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and/or cAMP are affected by opiates acting through delta-type opioid receptors (DORs), a cDNA encoding the neuronal DOR was expressed in a stably transfected Jurkat T-cell line. The DOR agonists, deltorphin and [D-Ala2, D-Leu5]-enkephalin (DADLE), elevated [Ca2+]i, measured by flow cytofluorometry using the calcium-sensitive dye, Fluo-3. At concentrations from 10(-11)-10(-7) M, both agonists increased [Ca2+]i from 60 nM to peak concentrations of 400 nM in a dose-dependent manner within 30 sec (ED50 of approximately 5 x 10(-9) M). Naltrindole, a selective DOR antagonist, abolished the increase in [Ca2+]i, and pretreatment with pertussis toxin was also effective. To assess the role of extracellular calcium, cells were pretreated with EGTA, which reduced the initial deltorphin-induced elevation of [Ca2+]i by more than 50% and eliminated the second phase of calcium mobilization. Additionally, the effect of DADLE on forskolin-stimulated cAMP production was determined. DADLE reduced cAMP production by 70% (IC50 of approximately equal to 10(-11) M), and pertussis toxin inhibited the action of DADLE. Thus, the DOR expressed by a transfected Jurkat T-cell line is positively coupled to pathways leading to calcium mobilization and negatively coupled to adenylate cyclase. These studies identify two pertussis toxin-sensitive, G protein-mediated signaling pathways through which DOR agonists regulate the levels of intracellular messengers that modulate T-cell activation.