Detection and localization of individual antibody-antigen recognition events by atomic force microscopy.

A methodology has been developed for the study of molecular recognition at the level of single events and for the localization of sites on biosurfaces, in combining force microscopy with molecular recognition by specific ligands. For this goal, a sensor was designed by covalently linking an antibody (anti-human serum albumin, polyclonal) via a flexible spacer to the tip of a force microscope. This sensor permitted detection of single antibody-antigen recognition events by force signals of unique shape with an unbinding force of 244 +/- 22 pN. Analysis revealed that observed unbinding forces originate from the dissociation of individual Fab fragments from a human serum albumin molecule. The two Fab fragments of the antibody were found to bind independently and with equal probability. The flexible linkage provided the antibody with a 6-nm dynamical reach for binding, rendering binding probability high, 0.5 for encounter times of 60 ms. This permitted fast and reliable detection of antigenic sites during lateral scans with a positional accuracy of 1.5 nm. It is indicated that this methodology has promise for characterizing rate constants and kinetics of molecular recognition complexes and for molecular mapping of biosurfaces such as membranes.

Interleukin 3 enhances cytotoxic T lymphocyte development and class I major histocompatibility complex "re-presentation" of exogenous antigen by tumor-infiltrating antigen-presenting cells.

We show that interleukin 3 (IL-3) enhances the generation of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) through the stimulation of host antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The BALB/c (H-2d) spontaneous lung carcinoma line 1 was modified by gene transfection to express ovalbumin as a nominal "tumor antigen" and to secrete IL-3, a cytokine enhancing myeloid development. IL-3-transfected tumor cells are less tumorigenic than the parental cell line, and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes isolated from these tumors contain increased numbers of tumor-specific CTLs. By using B3Z86/90.14 (B3Z), a unique T-cell hybridoma system restricted to ovalbumin/H-2b and implanting the tumors in (BALB/c x C57BL/6)F1 (H-2d/b) mice, we demonstrate that the IL-3-transfected tumors contain an increased number of a rare population of host cells that can process and "re-present" tumor antigen to CTLs. Electron microscopy allowed direct visualization of these host APCs, and these studies, along with surface marker phenotyping, indicate that these APCs are macrophage-like. The identification of these cells and their enhancement by IL-3 offers a new opportunity for tumor immunotherapy.

The 5' coding region of Paramecium surface antigen genes controls mutually exclusive transcription.

Paramecium tetraurelia stock 51 can express at least 11 different types of surface antigens, yet only a single type is expressed on the surface of an individual cell at any one time. The differential expression of stock 51 type A and B surface antigen genes (51A and 51B) is regulated at the level of transcription. Previously, we reported that nucleotide sequences upstream of position -26 (relative to the start of translation) in the 51A and 51B surface antigen genes are necessary for transcriptional activity but are not sufficient to direct differential transcriptional control. In this report we demonstrate that at least some of the critical elements necessary for differential transcription of the 51A and 51B genes lie within the 5' coding region. A hybrid gene that contains 51B upstream sequences (-475 to +1) attached to the ATG start codon of 51A is not cotranscribed with the 51B gene. In contrast, further substitution with 51B sequences (-1647 to +885) allows the chimeric gene to be coexpressed with 51B. A different hybrid gene containing a substitution of 51B sequence from -26 to +885 in the 51A gene is also coexpressed with 51B, revealing that the critical elements within the coding region of 51B do not require 51B upstream sequences for their effect. Coinjection of the 51A gene with the chimeric gene that contains 51B up to +885 showed that the same sequences that allow coexpression with 51B prevent cotranscription with 51A. Together, these results demonstrate that a region downstream of the transcriptional start site between nucleotide positions +1 and +885 (relative to translational start) is necessary to control differential transcriptional activity.

Intravenous injection of soluble antigen induces thymic and peripheral T-cells apoptosis.

The mechanism by which tolerance is induced via systemic administration of high doses of aqueous antigen has been analyzed by using mice transgenic for a T-cell receptor specific for the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) peptide comprising amino acids 126-138. After intravenous injection of 750 (but not 75) micrograms of HA peptide, a state of hyporesponsiveness was rapidly induced. In the thymus, in situ apoptosis in the cortex and at the corticomedullary junction was responsible for a synchronous and massive deletion of CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes. In secondary lymphoid organs, HA-reactive T cells were initially activated but were hyporesponsive at the single cell level. After 3 days, however, those cells were rapidly deleted, at least partially, through an apoptotic process. Therefore, both thymic and peripheral apoptosis, in addition to T-cell receptor desensitization, contribute to high-dose tolerance.

A recombinant antibody with the antigen-specific, major histocompatibility complex-restricted specificity of T cells.

Specific recognition of peptide/major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule complexes by the T-cell receptor is a key reaction in the specific immune response. Antibodies against peptide/MHC complexes would therefore be valuable tools in studying MHC function and T-cell recognition and might lead to novel approaches in immunotherapy. However, it has proven difficult to generate antibodies with the specificity of T cells by conventional hybridoma techniques. Here we report that the phage display technology is a feasible alternative to generate antibodies recognizing specific, predetermined peptide/MHC complexes.

Discontinuous epitopes of hepatitis B surface antigen derived from a filamentous phage peptide library.

The structure of the small hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) was investigated by epitope mapping of four anti-HBsAg monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Amino acid sequences of epitopes were derived from affinity-enrichment experiments (biopanning) using a filamentous phage peptide library. The library consists of 10(9) different clones bearing a 30-residue peptide fused to gene III. Sequence homologies between peptides obtained from panning the library against the antibodies and the native HBsAg sequence allowed for precise description of the binding regions. Three of four mAbs were found to bind to distinct discontinuous epitopes between amino acid residues 101 and 207 of HBsAg. The fourth mAb was demonstrated to bind to residues 121-124. The sequence data are supported by ELISA assays demonstrating the binding of the HBsAg-specific peptides on filamentous phage to mAbs. The sequence data were used to map the surface of HBsAg and to derive a topological model for the alpha-carbon trace of the 101-207 region of HBsAg. The approach should be useful for other proteins for which the crystal structure is not available but a representative set of mAbs can be obtained.

Pathogenic autoantibodies are routinely generated during the response to foreign antigen: a paradigm for autoimmune disease.

The immune system's ability to distinguish self and nonself is essential for both host defense against foreign agents and protection of self-antigens from autoimmune destruction. Such discrimination is complicated by extensive structural homology shared between foreign and self antigens. One hypothesis to explain the development of an autoimmune response is that some B cells activated by foreign antigen acquire, through somatic mutation, specificity for both the eliciting foreign antigen and self antigen. If such clones arise frequently, there must be a mechanism for their elimination. We have analyzed the extent of autoreactivity arising in a nonautoimmune host during the response to a foreign antigen. To overcome the process of apoptosis in primary B cells that might routinely eliminate autoreactive clones, we generated B-cell hybridomas from spleen cells of immunized mice by using a fusion partner constitutively expressing bcl-2. Multiple lines were obtained that recognize simultaneously the hapten phosphorylcholine and the self antigen double-stranded DNA. This dual specificity was not present early but was detected by day 10 after immunization. Some of these cross-reactive antibodies deposit in kidneys in a pattern similar to what is seen in autoimmune disease. These results demonstrate that autoantibodies arise at a high frequency as part of a response to foreign antigen. It has previously been shown that autoreactivity is regulated by central deletion; these data demonstrate a need for negative selection in peripheral lymphoid organs also, to regulate autoantibodies acquiring their self-specificity by somatic mutation.

Induction of cellular immunity in chimpanzees to human tumor-associated antigen mucin by vaccination with MUC-1 cDNA-transfected Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized autologous B cells.

Aberrant glycosylation of the mucin molecule (encoded by the gene MUC-1) on human epithelial cell tumors leads to the exposure of tumor-associated epitopes recognized by patients' antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Consequently, these epitopes could be considered targets for immunotherapy. We designed a cellular vaccine, employing, instead of tumor cells, autologous Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-immortalized B cells as carriers of tumor-associated mucin, to take advantage of their costimulatory molecules for T-cell activation. The vaccine was tested in chimpanzees because of the identity of the human and chimpanzee MUC-1 tandem repeat sequence. EBV-immortalized B cells derived from two chimpanzees were transfected with MUC-1 cDNA, treated with glycosylation inhibitor phenyl-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosaminide to expose tumor-associated epitopes, irradiated, and injected subcutaneously four times at 3-week intervals. One vaccine preparation also contained cells transduced with the interleukin 2 (IL-2) cDNA and producing low levels of IL-2. Already after the first injection we found in the peripheral blood measurable frequency of cytotoxic T-cell precursors specific for underglycosylated mucin. The highest frequency observed was after the last boost, in the lymph node draining the vaccination site. Delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to the injected immunogens was also induced, whereas no appearance of mucin-specific antibodies was seen. Long-term observation of the animals yielded no signs of adverse effects of this immunization. Autologous antigen-presenting cells, like EBV-immortalized B cells, expressing tumor-associated antigens are potentially useful immunogens for induction of cellular anti-tumor responses in vivo.

Catalytic activity of the mouse guanine nucleotide exchanger mSOS is activated by Fyn tyrosine protein kinase and the T-cell antigen receptor in T cells.

mSOS, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, is a positive regulator of Ras. Fyn tyrosine protein kinase is a potential mediator in T-cell antigen receptor signal transduction in subsets of T cells. We investigated the functional and physical interaction between mSOS and Fyn in T-cell hybridoma cells. Stimulation of the T-cell antigen receptor induced the activation of guanine nucleotide exchange activity in mSOS immunoprecipitates. Overexpression of Fyn mutants with an activated kinase mutation and with a Src homology 2 deletion mutation resulted in a stimulation and suppression of the mSOS activity, respectively. The complex formations of Fyn-Shc, Shc-Grb2, and Grb2-mSOS were detected in the activated Fyn-transformed cells, whereas the SH2 deletion mutant of Fyn failed to form a complex with mSOS. Moreover, tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc was induced by the overexpression of the activated Fyn. These findings support the idea that Fyn activates the activity of mSOS bound to Grb2 through tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc. Unlike the current prevailing model, Fyn-induced activation of Ras might involve the stimulation of the catalytic guanine nucleotide exchange activity of mSOS.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen is a hydrolase with substrate and pharmacologic characteristics of a neuropeptidase.

This report demonstrates that the investigational prostatic carcinoma marker known as the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSM) possesses hydrolytic activity with the substrate and pharmacologic properties of the N-acetylated alpha-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase). NAALADase is a membrane hydrolase that has been characterized in the mammalian nervous system on the basis of its catabolism of the neuropeptide N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) to yield glutamate and N-acetylaspartate and that has been hypothesized to influence glutamatergic signaling processes. The immunoscreening of a rat brain cDNA expression library with anti-NAALADase antisera identified a 1428-base partial cDNA that shares 86% sequence identity with 1428 bases of the human PSM cDNA [Israeli, R. S., Powell, C. T., Fair, W. R. & Heston, W.D.W. (1993) Cancer Res. 53, 227-230]. A cDNA containing the entire PSM open reading frame was subsequently isolated by reverse transcription-PCR from the PSM-positive prostate carcinoma cell line LNCaP. Transient transfection of this cDNA into two NAALADase-negative cell lines conferred NAAG-hydrolyzing activity that was inhibited by the NAALADase inhibitors quisqualic acid and beta-NAAG. Thus we demonstrate a PSM-encoded function and identify a NAALADase-encoding cDNA. Northern analyses identify at least six transcripts that are variably expressed in NAALADase-positive but not in NAALADase-negative rat tissues and human cell lines; therefore, PSM and/or related molecular species appear to account for NAAG hydrolysis in the nervous system. These results also raise questions about the role of PSM in both normal and pathologic prostate epithelial-cell function.

Transcriptional activation of the human proliferating-cell nuclear antigen promoter by p53.

Proliferating-cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a DNA damage-inducible protein that performs an essential function in DNA replication and repair as an auxiliary factor for DNA polymerases delta and epsilon. Examination of the human PCNA promoter DNA sequence revealed a site with homology to the consensus DNA sequence bound by p53. PCNA promoter fragments with this site intact bound p53 in vitro and were transcriptionally activated by wild-type p53 in transient expression assays in SAOS-2 cells. The resident p53-binding site could be functionally substituted by a previously described p53-binding site from the ribosomal gene cluster. A plasmid expressing a mutated version of p53 derived from a patient with Li-Fraumeni syndrome failed to activate the PCNA promoter in the cotransfection assay. In different cell types, activation of the PCNA promoter by the p53-binding sequence correlated with the status of p53. Activation of the PCNA promoter by wild-type p53 depends upon the level of p53 expression. This concentration dependence and cell type specificity reconciles the observations presented here with prior results indicating that wild-type p53 represses the PCNA promoter. These findings provide a mechanism whereby p53 modulates activation of PCNA expression as a cellular response to DNA damage.

Molecular cloning of mesothelin, a differentiation antigen present on mesothelium, mesotheliomas, and ovarian cancers.

Monoclonal antibody MAb K1 recognizes a 40-kDa glycoprotein present on the surface of mesothelial cells, mesotheliomas, and ovarian cancers. We have used MAb K1 to isolate a 2138-bp cDNA that encodes this antigen. The cDNA has an 1884-bp open reading frame encoding a 69-kDa protein. When the cDNA was transfected into COS and NIH 3T3 cells, the antigen was found on the cell surface and could be released by treatment with phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. The 69-kDa precursor is processed to the 40-kDa form. The protein has been named mesothelin because it is made by mesothelial cells. Mesothelin may play a role in cellular adhesion.

Expression of a single-chain HLA class I molecule in a human cell line: presentation of exogenous peptide and processed antigen to cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

We have synthesized a recombinant gene encoding a single-chain HLA-A2/beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m) molecule by linking beta 2m through its carboxyl terminus via a short peptide spacer to HLA-A2 (A*0201). This gene has been expressed in the beta 2m-deficient colorectal tumor cell line DLD-1. Transfection of this cell with the single-chain construct was associated with conformationally correct cell surface expression of a class I molecule of appropriate molecular mass. The single-chain HLA class I molecule presented either exogenously added peptide or (after interferon-gamma treatment) endogenously processed antigen to an influenza A matrix-specific, HLA-A2-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocyte line. The need for interferon gamma for the processing and presentation of endogenous antigen suggests that DLD-1 has an antigen-processing defect that can be up-regulated, a feature that may be found in other carcinomas. Our data indicate that single-chain HLA class I constructs can form functional class I molecules capable of presenting endogenously processed antigens. Such molecules should be of use for functional studies, as well as providing potential anticancer immunotherapeutic agents or vaccines.

The law of mass action governs antigen-stimulated cytolytic activity of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

An analysis of the initial antigen-recognition step in the destruction of target cells by CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs) shows that a relationship in the form of the law of mass action can be used to describe interactions between antigen-specific receptors on T cells (TCRs) and their natural ligands on target cells (peptide-major histocompatibility protein complexes, termed pepMHC complexes), even though these reactants are confined to their respective cell membranes. For a designated level of lysis and receptor affinities below about 5 X 10(6) M-1, the product of the required number of pepMHC complexes per target cell ("epitope density") and TCR affinity for pepMHC complexes is constant; therefore, over this range TCR affinities can be predicted from epitope densities (or vice versa). At higher receptor affinities ("affinity ceiling") the epitope density required for half-maximal lysis reaches a lower limit of less than 10 complexes per target cell.