Upregulation of class I major histocompatibility complex antigens by interferon gamma is necessary for T-cell-mediated elimination of recombinant adenovirus-infected hepatocytes in vivo.

Recombinant adenoviruses are attractive vehicles for liver-directed gene therapy because of the high efficiency with which they transfer genes to hepatocytes in vivo. First generation recombinant adenoviruses deleted of E1 sequences also express recombinant and early and late viral genes, which lead to development of destructive cellular immune responses. Previous studies indicated that class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) play a major role in eliminating virus-infected cells. The present studies utilize mouse models to evaluate the role of T-helper cells in the primary response to adenovirus-mediated gene transfer to the liver. In vivo ablation of CD4+ cells or interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) was sufficient to prevent the elimination of adenovirus-transduced hepatocytes, despite the induction of a measurable CTL response. Mobilization of an effective TH1 response as measured by in vitro proliferation assays was associated with substantial upregulation of MHC class I expression, an effect that was prevented in IFN-gamma-deficient animals. These results suggest that elimination of virus-infected hepatocytes in a primary exposure to recombinant adenovirus requires both induction of antigen-specific CTLs as well as sensitization of the target cell by TH1-mediated activation of MHC class I expression.

Stringent chemical and thermal regulation of recombinant gene expression by vaccinia virus vectors in mammalian cells.

We developed a stringently regulated expression system for mammalian cells that uses (i) the RNA polymerase, phi 10 promoter, and T phi transcriptional terminator of bacteriophage T7; (ii) the lac repressor, lac operator, rho-independent transcriptional terminators and the gpt gene of Escherichia coli; (iii) the RNA translational enhancer of encephalomyocarditis virus; and (iv) the genetic background of vaccinia virus. In cells infected with the recombinant vaccinia virus, reporter beta-galactosidase synthesis was not detected in the absence of inducer. An induction of at least 10,000- to 20,000-fold occurred upon addition of isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside or by temperature elevation from 30 to 37 degrees C using a temperature-sensitive lac repressor. Regulated synthesis of the secreted and highly glycosylated human immunodeficiency virus 1 envelope protein gp120 was also demonstrated. Yields of both proteins were approximately 2 mg per 10(8) cells in 24 hr. Plasmid transfer vectors for cloning and expression of complete or incomplete open reading frames in recombinant vaccinia viruses are described.

Mucosal and systemic immune responses to a recombinant protein expressed on the surface of the oral commensal bacterium Streptococcus gordonii after oral colonization.

To circumvent the need to engineer pathogenic microorganisms as live vaccine-delivery vehicles, a system was developed which allowed for the stable expression of a wide range of protein antigens on the surface of Gram-positive commensal bacteria. The human oral commensal Streptococcus gordonii was engineered to surface express a 204-amino acid allergen from hornet venom (Ag5.2) as a fusion with the anchor region of the M6 protein of Streptococcus pyogenes. The immunogenicity of the M6-Ag5.2 fusion protein was assessed in mice inoculated orally and intranasally with a single dose of recombinant bacteria, resulting in the colonization of the oral/pharyngeal mucosa for 10-11 weeks. A significant increase of Ag5.2-specific IgA with relation to the total IgA was detected in saliva and lung lavages when compared with mice colonized with wild-type S. gordonii. A systemic IgG response to Ag5.2 was also induced after oral colonization. Thus, recombinant Gram-positive commensal bacteria may be a safe and effective way of inducing a local and systemic immune response.

Directed selection of recombinant human monoclonal antibodies to herpes simplex virus glycoproteins from phage display libraries.

Human monoclonal antibodies have considerable potential in the prophylaxis and treatment of viral disease. However, only a few such antibodies suitable for clinical use have been produced to date. We have previously shown that large panels of human recombinant monoclonal antibodies against a plethora of infectious agents, including herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, can be established from phage display libraries. Here we demonstrate that facile cloning of recombinant Fab fragments against specific viral proteins in their native conformation can be accomplished by panning phage display libraries against viral glycoproteins "captured" from infected cell extracts by specific monoclonal antibodies immobilized on ELISA plates. We have tested this strategy by isolating six neutralizing recombinant antibodies specific for herpes simplex glycoprotein gD or gB, some of which are against conformationally sensitive epitopes. By using defined monoclonal antibodies for the antigen-capture step, this method can be used for the isolation of antibodies to specific regions and epitopes within the target viral protein. For instance, monoclonal antibodies to a nonneutralizing epitope can be used in the capture step to clone antibodies to neutralizing epitopes, or antibodies to a neutralizing epitope can be used to clone antibodies to a different neutralizing epitope. Furthermore, by using capturing antibodies to more immunodominant epitopes, one can direct the cloning to less immunogenic ones. This method should be of value in generating antibodies to be used both in the prophylaxis and treatment of viral infections and in the characterization of the mechanisms of antibody protective actions at the molecular level.

Minimal epitopes expressed in a recombinant polyepitope protein are processed and presented to CD8+ cytotoxic T cells: implications for vaccine design.

The epitopes recognized by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are generated from cytosolic proteins by proteolytic processing. The nature of the influences exerted by the sequences flanking CTL epitopes on these processing events remains controversial. Here we show that each epitope within an artificial polyepitope protein containing nine minimal CD8+ CTL epitopes in sequence was processed and presented to appropriate CTL clones. Natural flanking sequences were thus not required to direct class I proteolytic processing. In addition, unnatural flanking sequences containing other CTL epitopes did not interfere with processing. The ability of every CTL epitope to be effectively processed from a protein containing only CTL epitopes is likely to find application in the construction of recombinant polyepitope CTL vaccines.

Inflammation-induced recombinant protein expression in vivo using promoters from acute-phase protein genes.

We report that promoters for two murine acute-phase protein (APP) genes, complement factor 3 (C3) and serum amyloid A3 (SAA3), can increase recombinant protein expression in response to inflammatory stimuli in vivo. To deliver APP promoter-luciferase reporter gene constructs to the liver, where most endogenous APP synthesis occurs, we introduced them into a nonreplicating adenovirus vector and injected the purified viruses intravenously into mice. When compared with the low levels of basal luciferase expression observed prior to inflammatory challenge, markedly increased expression from the C3 promoter was detected in liver in response to both lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and turpentine, and lower-level inducible expression was also found in lung. In contrast, expression from the SAA3 promoter was found only in liver and was much more responsive to LPS than to turpentine. After LPS challenge, hepatic luciferase expression increased rapidly and in proportion to the LPS dose. Use of cytokine-inducible promoters in gene transfer vectors may make it possible to produce antiinflammatory proteins in vivo in direct relationship to the intensity and duration of an individual's inflammatory response. By providing endogenously controlled production of recombinant antiinflammatory proteins, this approach might limit the severity of the inflammatory response without interfering with the beneficial components of host defense and immunity.

Rapid RNA polymerase genetics: one-day, no-column preparation of reconstituted recombinant Escherichia coli RNA polymerase.

We present a simple, rapid procedure for reconstitution of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase holoenzyme (RNAP) from individual recombinant alpha, beta, beta', and sigma 70 subunits. Hexahistidine-tagged recombinant alpha subunit purified by batch-mode metal-ion-affinity chromatography is incubated with crude recombinant beta, beta', and sigma 70 subunits from inclusion bodies, and the resulting reconstituted recombinant RNAP is purified by batch-mode metal-ion-affinity chromatography. RNAP prepared by this procedure is indistinguishable from RNAP prepared by conventional methods with respect to subunit stoichiometry, alpha-DNA interaction, catabolite gene activator protein (CAP)-independent transcription, and CAP-dependent transcription. Experiments with alpha (1-235), an alpha subunit C-terminal deletion mutant, establish that the procedure is suitable for biochemical screening of subunit lethal mutants.

Recombinant vesicular stomatitis viruses from DNA.

We assembled a DNA clone containing the 11,161-nt sequence of the prototype rhabdovirus, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), such that it could be transcribed by the bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase to yield a full-length positive-strand RNA complementary to the VSV genome. Expression of this RNA in cells also expressing the VSV nucleocapsid protein and the two VSV polymerase subunits resulted in production of VSV with the growth characteristics of wild-type VSV. Recovery of virus from DNA was verified by (i) the presence of two genetic tags generating restriction sites in DNA derived from the genome, (ii) direct sequencing of the genomic RNA of the recovered virus, and (iii) production of a VSV recombinant in which the glycoprotein was derived from a second serotype. The ability to generate VSV from DNA opens numerous possibilities for the genetic analysis of VSV replication. In addition, because VSV can be grown to very high titers and in large quantities with relative ease, it may be possible to genetically engineer recombinant VSVs displaying foreign antigens. Such modified viruses could be useful as vaccines conferring protection against other viruses.

Potent interleukin 3 receptor agonist with selectively enhanced hematopoietic activity relative to recombinant human interleukin 3.

A systematic evaluation of structure-activity information led to the construction of genetically engineered interleukin 3 (IL-3) receptor agonists (synthokines) with enhanced hematopoietic potency. SC-55494, the most extensively characterized member of this series, exhibits 10- to 20-fold greater biological activity than recombinant human IL-3 (rhIL-3) in human hematopoietic cell proliferation and marrow colony-forming-unit assays. In contrast, SC-55494 is only twice as active as rhIL-3 in priming the synthesis of inflammatory mediators such as leukotriene C4 and triggering the release of histamine from peripheral blood leukocytes. The enhanced hematopoietic activity of SC-55494 correlates with a 60-fold increase in IL-3 alpha-subunit binding affinity and a 20-fold greater affinity for binding to alpha/beta receptor complexes on intact cells relative to rhIL-3. SC-55494 demonstrates a 5- to 10-fold enhanced hematopoietic response relative to its ability to activate the priming and release of inflammatory mediators. Therefore, SC-55494 may ameliorate the myeloablation of cancer therapeutic regimens while minimizing dose-limiting inflammatory side effects.

Recombinant Listeria monocytogenes as a live vaccine vehicle for the induction of protective anti-viral cell-mediated immunity.

Listeria monocytogenes (LM) is a Gram-positive bacterium that is able to enter host cells, escape from the endocytic vesicle, multiply within the cytoplasm, and spread directly from cell to cell without encountering the extracellular milieu. The ability of LM to gain access to the host cell cytosol allows proteins secreted by the bacterium to efficiently enter the pathway for major histocompatibility complex class I antigen processing and presentation. We have established a genetic system for expression and secretion of foreign antigens by recombinant strains, based on stable site-specific integration of expression cassettes into the LM genome. The ability of LM recombinants to induce protective immunity against a heterologous pathogen was demonstrated with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). LM strains expressing the entire LCMV nucleoprotein or an H-2Ld-restricted nucleoprotein epitope (aa 118-126) were constructed. Immunization of mice with LM vaccine strains conferred protection against challenge with virulent strains of LCMV that otherwise establish chronic infection in naive adult mice. In vivo depletion of CD8+ T cells from vaccinated mice abrogated their ability to clear viral infection, showing that protective anti-viral immunity was due to CD8+ T cells.