Biochemical evolution III: Polymerization on organophilic silica-rich surfaces, crystal–chemical modeling, formation of first cells, and geological clues

Catalysis at organophilic silica-rich surfaces of zeolites and feldspars might generate replicating biopolymers from simple chemicals supplied by meteorites, volcanic gases, and other geological sources. Crystal–chemical modeling yielded packings for amino acids neatly encapsulated in 10-ring channels of the molecular sieve silicalite-ZSM-5-(mutinaite). Calculation of binding and activation energies for catalytic assembly into polymers is progressing for a chemical composition with one catalytic Al–OH site per 25 neutral Si tetrahedral sites. Internal channel intersections and external terminations provide special stereochemical features suitable for complex organic species. Polymer migration along nano/micrometer channels of ancient weathered feldspars, plus exploitation of phosphorus and various transition metals in entrapped apatite and other microminerals, might have generated complexes of replicating catalytic biomolecules, leading to primitive cellular organisms. The first cell wall might have been an internal mineral surface, from which the cell developed a protective biological cap emerging into a nutrient-rich “soup.” Ultimately, the biological cap might have expanded into a complete cell wall, allowing mobility and colonization of energy-rich challenging environments. Electron microscopy of honeycomb channels inside weathered feldspars of the Shap granite (northwest England) has revealed modern bacteria, perhaps indicative of Archean ones. All known early rocks were metamorphosed too highly during geologic time to permit simple survival of large-pore zeolites, honeycombed feldspar, and encapsulated species. Possible microscopic clues to the proposed mineral adsorbents/catalysts are discussed for planning of systematic study of black cherts from weakly metamorphosed Archaean sediments.

Benzothiadiazole-Mediated Induced Resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici in Tomato1

Benzo-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH), a synthetic chemical, was applied as a foliar spray to tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plants and evaluated for its potential to confer increased resistance against the soil-borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici (FORL). In nontreated tomato plants all root tissues were massively colonized by FORL hyphae. Pathogen ingress toward the vascular stele was accompanied by severe host cell alterations, including cell wall breakdown. In BTH-treated plants striking differences in the rate and extent of fungal colonization were observed. Pathogen growth was restricted to the epidermis and the outer cortex, and fungal ingress was apparently halted by the formation of callose-enriched wall appositions at sites of fungal penetration. In addition, aggregated deposits, which frequently established close contact with the invading hyphae, accumulated in densely colonized epidermal cells and filled most intercellular spaces. Upon incubation of sections with gold-complexed laccase for localization of phenolic-like compounds, a slight deposition of gold particles was observed over both the host cell walls and the wall appositions. Labeling was also detected over the walls of fungal cells showing signs of obvious alteration ranging from cytoplasm disorganization to protoplasm retraction. We provide evidence that foliar applications of BTH sensitize susceptible tomato plants to react more rapidly and more efficiently to FORL attack through the formation of protective layers at sites of potential fungal entry.

Expression Analysis of a Ripening-Specific, Auxin-Repressed Endo-1,4-β-Glucanase Gene in Strawberry

A cDNA (Cel1) encoding an endo-1,4-β-glucanase (EGase) was isolated from ripe fruit of strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa). The deduced protein of 496 amino acids contains a presumptive signal sequence, a common feature of cell wall-localized EGases, and one potential N-glycosylation site. Southern- blot analysis of genomic DNA from F. × ananassa, an octoploid species, and that from the diploid species Fragaria vesca indicated that the Cel1 gene is a member of a divergent multigene family. In fruit, Cel1 mRNA was first detected at the white stage of development, and at the onset of ripening, coincident with anthocyanin accumulation, Cel1 mRNA abundance increased dramatically and remained high throughout ripening and subsequent fruit deterioration. In all other tissues examined, Cel1 expression was invariably absent. Antibodies raised to Cel1 protein detected a protein of 62 kD only in ripening fruit. Upon deachenation of young white fruit to remove the source of endogenous auxins, ripening, as visualized by anthocyanin accumulation, and Cel1 mRNA accumulation were both accelerated. Conversely, auxin treatment of white fruit repressed accumulation of both Cel1 mRNA and ripening. These results indicate that strawberry Cel1 is a ripening-specific and auxin-repressed EGase, which is regulated during ripening by a decline in auxin levels originating from the achenes.

Localized Changes in Peroxidase Activity Accompany Hydrogen Peroxide Generation during the Development of a Nonhost Hypersensitive Reaction in Lettuce1

Peroxidase activity was characterized in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) leaf tissue. Changes in the activity and distribution of the enzyme were examined during the development of a nonhost hypersensitive reaction (HR) induced by Pseudomonas syringae (P. s.) pv phaseolicola and in response to an hrp mutant of the bacterium. Assays of activity in tissue extracts revealed pH optima of 4.5, 6.0, 5.5 to 6.0, and 6.0 to 6.5 for the substrates tetramethylbenzidine, guaiacol, caffeic acid, and chlorogenic acid, respectively. Inoculation with water or with wild-type or hrp mutant strains of P. s. pv phaseolicola caused an initial decline in total peroxidase activity; subsequent increases depended on the hydrogen donor used in the assay. Guaiacol peroxidase recovered more rapidly in tissues undergoing the HR, whereas changes in tetramethylbenzidine peroxidase were generally similar in the two interactions. In contrast, increases in chlorogenic acid peroxidase were significantly higher in tissues inoculated with the hrp mutant. During the HR, increased levels of Mn2+/2,4-dichlorophenol-stimulated NADH and NADPH oxidase activities, characteristic of certain peroxidases, were found in intercellular fluids and closely matched the accumulation of H2O2 in the apoplast. Histochemical analysis of peroxidase distribution by electron microscopy revealed a striking, highly localized increase in activity within the endomembrane system and cell wall at the sites of bacterial attachment. However, no clear differences in peroxidase location were observed in tissue challenged by the wild-type strain or the hrp mutant. Our results highlight the significance of the subcellular control of oxidative reactions leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species, cell wall alterations, and the HR.

petit1, a Conditional Growth Mutant of Arabidopsis Defective in Sucrose-Dependent Elongation Growth1

The hypocotyl of Arabidopsis is well suited for the analysis of cell elongation because it elongates without cell division. We have isolated a new class of recessive mutants, petit1 (pet1), which are defective in aspects of hypocotyl elongation. The short-hypocotyl phenotype of pet1 is caused by shortened cells. The cells of the elongation zone of the hypocotyl are often deformed. pet1 also shows defects in elongation of the roots, flower stalk, leaves, petals, pedicels, and siliques, and these defects cannot be repaired by the application of auxin, gibberellin, brassinolide, or an inhibitor of ethylene biosynthesis. The short-hypocotyl phenotype of pet1 is pronounced only in growth medium supplemented with sucrose, which has promotive effects on hypocotyl elongation. In pet1 this effect is much reduced, causing the sucrose-dependent short-hypocotyl phenotype of pet1. pet1 accumulates more soluble sugars than the wild type and also shows more intensive iodo-starch staining in the cotyledon and hypocotyl. These results indicate that PETIT1 is involved in a sugar-dependent elongation process that may include correct assembly of expanding cell wall architecture.

Acid-Growth Response and α-Expansins in Suspension Cultures of Bright Yellow 2 Tobacco1

The possibility that Bright Yellow 2 (BY2) tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) suspension-cultured cells possess an expansin-mediated acid-growth mechanism was examined by multiple approaches. BY2 cells grew three times faster upon treatment with fusicoccin, which induces an acidification of the cell wall. Exogenous expansins likewise stimulated BY2 cell growth 3-fold. Protein extracted from BY2 cell walls possessed the expansin-like ability to induce extension of isolated walls. In western-blot analysis of BY2 wall protein, one band of 29 kD was recognized by anti-expansin antibody. Six different classes of α-expansin mRNA were identified in a BY2 cDNA library. Northern-blot analysis indicated moderate to low abundance of multiple α-expansin mRNAs in BY2 cells. From these results we conclude that BY2 suspension-cultured cells have the necessary components for expansin-mediated cell wall enlargement.

Purification and Characterization of Peroxidases Correlated with Lignification in Poplar Xylem1

Lignin is an integral cell wall component of all vascular plants. Peroxidases are widely believed to catalyze the last enzymatic step in the biosynthesis of lignin, the dehydrogenation of the p-coumaryl alcohols. As the first stage in identifying lignin-specific peroxidase isoenzymes, the classical anionic peroxidases found in the xylem of poplar (Populus trichocarpa Trichobel) were purified and characterized. Five different poplar xylem peroxidases (PXP 1, PXP 2, PXP 3–4, PXP 5, and PXP 6) were isolated. All five peroxidases were strongly glycosylated (3.6% to 4.9% N-glucosamine), with apparent molecular masses between 46 and 54 kD and pI values between pH 3.1 and 3.8. Two of the five isolated peroxidases (PXP 3–4 and PXP 5) could oxidize the lignin monomer analog syringaldazine, an activity previously correlated with lignification in poplar. Because these isoenzymes were specifically or preferentially expressed in xylem, PXP 3–4 and PXP 5 are suggested to be involved in lignin polymerization.

Characterization of Zinc Uptake, Binding, and Translocation in Intact Seedlings of Bread and Durum Wheat Cultivars

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var durum) cultivars exhibit lower Zn efficiency than comparable bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars. To understand the physiological mechanism(s) that confers Zn efficiency, this study used 65Zn to investigate ionic Zn2+ root uptake, binding, and translocation to shoots in seedlings of bread and durum wheat cultivars. Time-dependent Zn2+ accumulation during 90 min was greater in roots of the bread wheat cultivar. Zn2+ cell wall binding was not different in the two cultivars. In each cultivar, concentration-dependent Zn2+ influx was characterized by a smooth, saturating curve, suggesting a carrier-mediated uptake system. At very low solution Zn2+ activities, Zn2+ uptake rates were higher in the bread wheat cultivar. As a result, the Michaelis constant for Zn2+ uptake was lower in the bread wheat cultivar (2.3 μm) than in the durum wheat cultivar (3.9 μm). Low temperature decreased the rate of Zn2+ influx, suggesting that metabolism plays a role in Zn2+ uptake. Ca inhibited Zn2+ uptake equally in both cultivars. Translocation of Zn to shoots was greater in the bread wheat cultivar, reflecting the higher root uptake rates. The study suggests that lower root Zn2+ uptake rates may contribute to reduced Zn efficiency in durum wheat varieties under Zn-limiting conditions.

Expression Patterns Conferred by Tyrosine/Dihydroxyphenylalanine Decarboxylase Promoters from Opium Poppy Are Conserved in Transgenic Tobacco1

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) contains a large family of tyrosine/dihydroxyphenylalanine decarboxylase (tydc) genes involved in the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and cell wall-bound hydroxycinnamic acid amides. Eight members from two distinct gene subfamilies have been isolated, tydc1, tydc4, tydc6, tydc8, and tydc9 in one group and tydc2, tydc3, and tydc7 in the other. The tydc8 and tydc9 genes were located 3.2 kb apart on one genomic clone, suggesting that the family is clustered. Transcripts for most tydc genes were detected only in roots. Only tydc2 and tydc7 revealed expression in both roots and shoots, and TYDC3 mRNAs were the only specific transcripts detected in seedlings. TYDC1, TYDC8, and TYDC9 mRNAs, which occurred in roots, were not detected in elicitor-treated opium poppy cultures. Expression of tydc4, which contains a premature termination codon, was not detected under any conditions. Five tydc promoters were fused to the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene in a binary vector. All constructs produced transient GUS activity in microprojectile-bombarded opium poppy and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cell cultures. The organ- and tissue-specific expression pattern of tydc promoter-GUS fusions in transgenic tobacco was generally parallel to that of corresponding tydc genes in opium poppy. GUS expression was most abundant in the internal phloem of shoot organs and in the stele of roots. Select tydc promoter-GUS fusions were also wound induced in transgenic tobacco, suggesting that the basic mechanisms of developmental and inducible tydc regulation are conserved across plant species.

Polygalacturonase Gene Expression in Ripe Melon Fruit Supports a Role for Polygalacturonase in Ripening-Associated Pectin Disassembly

Ripening-associated pectin disassembly in melon is characterized by a decrease in molecular mass and an increase in the solubilization of polyuronide, modifications that in other fruit have been attributed to the activity of polygalacturonase (PG). Although it has been reported that PG activity is absent during melon fruit ripening, a mechanism for PG-independent pectin disassembly has not been positively identified. Here we provide evidence that pectin disassembly in melon (Cucumis melo) may be PG mediated. Three melon cDNA clones with significant homology to other cloned PGs were isolated from the rapidly ripening cultivar Charentais (C. melo cv Reticulatus F1 Alpha) and were expressed at high levels during fruit ripening. The expression pattern correlated temporally with an increase in pectin-degrading activity and a decrease in the molecular mass of cell wall pectins, suggesting that these genes encode functional PGs. MPG1 and MPG2 were closely related to peach fruit and tomato abscission zone PGs, and MPG3 was closely related to tomato fruit PG. MPG1, the most abundant melon PG mRNA, was expressed in Aspergillus oryzae. The culture filtrate exponentially decreased the viscosity of a pectin solution and catalyzed the linear release of reducing groups, suggesting that MPG1 encodes an endo-PG with the potential to depolymerize melon fruit cell wall pectin. Because MPG1 belongs to a group of PGs divergent from the well-characterized tomato fruit PG, this supports the involvement of a second class of PGs in fruit ripening-associated pectin disassembly.

A Gene Coding for Tomato Fruit β-Galactosidase II Is Expressed during Fruit Ripening : Cloning, Characterization, and Expression Pattern

β-Galactosidases (EC 3.2.1.23) constitute a widespread family of enzymes characterized by their ability to hydrolyze terminal, nonreducing β-d-galactosyl residues from β-d-galactosides. Several β-galactosidases, sometimes referred to as exo-galactanases, have been purified from plants and shown to possess in vitro activity against extracted cell wall material via the release of galactose from wall polymers containing β(1→4)-d-galactan. Although β-galactosidase II, a protein present in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruit during ripening and capable of degrading tomato fruit galactan, has been purified, cloning of the corresponding gene has been elusive. We report here the cloning of a cDNA, pTomβgal 4 (accession no. AF020390), corresponding to β-galactosidase II, and show that its corresponding gene is expressed during fruit ripening. Northern-blot analysis revealed that the β-galactosidase II gene transcript was detectable at the breaker stage of ripeness, maximum at the turning stage, and present at decreasing levels during the later stages of normal tomato fruit ripening. At the turning stage of ripeness, the transcript was present in all fruit tissues and was highest in the outermost tissues (including the peel). Confirmation that pTomβgal 4 codes for β-galactosidase II was derived from matching protein and deduced amino acid sequences. Furthermore, analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence of pTomβgal 4 suggested a high probability for secretion based on the presence of a hydrophobic leader sequence, a leader-sequence cleavage site, and three possible N-glycosylation sites. The predicted molecular mass and isoelectric point of the pTomβgal 4-encoded mature protein were similar to those reported for the purified β-galactosidase II protein from tomato fruit.

Molecular Characterization of the Oxalate Oxidase Involved in the Response of Barley to the Powdery Mildew Fungus1

Previously we reported that oxalate oxidase activity increases in extracts of barley (Hordeum vulgare) leaves in response to the powdery mildew fungus (Blumeria [syn. Erysiphe] graminis f.sp. hordei) and proposed this as a source of H2O2 during plant-pathogen interactions. In this paper we show that the N terminus of the major pathogen-response oxalate oxidase has a high degree of sequence identity to previously characterized germin-like oxalate oxidases. Two cDNAs were isolated, pHvOxOa, which represents this major enzyme, and pHvOxOb', representing a closely related enzyme. Our data suggest the presence of only two oxalate oxidase genes in the barley genome, i.e. a gene encoding HvOxOa, which possibly exists in several copies, and a single-copy gene encoding HvOxOb. The use of 3′ end gene-specific probes has allowed us to demonstrate that the HvOxOa transcript accumulates to 6 times the level of the HvOxOb transcript in response to the powdery mildew fungus. The transcripts were detected in both compatible and incompatible interactions with a similar accumulation pattern. The oxalate oxidase is found exclusively in the leaf mesophyll, where it is cell wall located. A model for a signal transduction pathway in which oxalate oxidase plays a central role is proposed for the regulation of the hypersensitive response.

Comparative Biochemistry of the Oxidative Burst Produced by Rose and French Bean Cells Reveals Two Distinct Mechanisms1

Cultured cells of rose (Rosa damascena) treated with an elicitor derived from Phytophthora spp. and suspension-cultured cells of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) treated with an elicitor derived from the cell walls of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum both produced H2O2. It has been hypothesized that in rose cells H2O2 is produced by a plasma membrane NAD(P)H oxidase (superoxide synthase), whereas in bean cells H2O2 is derived directly from cell wall peroxidases following extracellular alkalinization and the appearance of a reductant. In the rose/Phytophthora spp. system treated with N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate, superoxide was detected by a N,N′-dimethyl-9,9′-biacridium dinitrate-dependent chemiluminescence; in contrast, in the bean/C. lindemuthianum system, no superoxide was detected, with or without N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate. When rose cells were washed free of medium (containing cell wall peroxidase) and then treated with Phytophthora spp. elicitor, they accumulated a higher maximum concentration of H2O2 than when treated without the washing procedure. In contrast, a washing treatment reduced the H2O2 accumulated by French bean cells treated with C. lindemuthianum elicitor. Rose cells produced reductant capable of stimulating horseradish (Armoracia lapathifolia) peroxidase to form H2O2 but did not have a peroxidase capable of forming H2O2 in the presence of reductant. Rose and French bean cells thus appear to be responding by different mechanisms to generate the oxidative burst.

Characterization of Cadmium Binding, Uptake, and Translocation in Intact Seedlings of Bread and Durum Wheat Cultivars

High Cd content in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var durum) grain grown in the United States and Canada presents potential health and economic problems for consumers and growers. In an effort to understand the biological processes that result in excess Cd accumulation, root Cd uptake and xylem translocation to shoots in seedlings of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat cultivars were studied. Whole-plant Cd accumulation was somewhat greater in the bread wheat cultivar, but this was probably because of increased apoplastic Cd binding. Concentration-dependent 109Cd2+-influx kinetics in both cultivars were characterized by smooth, nonsaturating curves that could be dissected into linear and saturable components. The saturable component likely represented carrier-mediated Cd influx across root-cell plasma membranes (Michaelis constant, 20–40 nm; maximum initial velocity, 26–29 nmol g−1 fresh weight h−1), whereas linear Cd uptake represented cell wall binding of 109Cd. Cd translocation to shoots was greater in the bread wheat cultivar than in the durum cultivar because a larger proportion of root-absorbed Cd moved to shoots. Our results indicate that excess Cd accumulation in durum wheat grain is not correlated with seedling-root influx rates or root-to-shoot translocation, but may be related to phloem-mediated Cd transport to the grain.

Extending the Microtubule/Microfibril Paradigm1 : Cellulose Synthesis Is Required for Normal Cortical Microtubule Alignment in Elongating Cells

The cortical microtubule array provides spatial information to the cellulose-synthesizing machinery within the plasma membrane of elongating cells. Until now data indicated that information is transferred from organized cortical microtubules to the cellulose-synthesizing complex, which results in the deposition of ordered cellulosic walls. How cortical microtubules become aligned is unclear. The literature indicates that biophysical forces, transmitted by the organized cellulose component of the cell wall, provide a spatial cue to orient cortical microtubules. This hypothesis was tested on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) protoplasts and suspension-cultured cells treated with the cellulose synthesis inhibitor isoxaben. Isoxaben (0.25–2.5 μm) inhibited the synthesis of cellulose microfibrils (detected by staining with 1 μg mL−1 fluorescent dye and polarized birefringence), the cells failed to elongate, and the cortical microtubules failed to become organized. The affects of isoxaben were reversible, and after its removal microtubules reorganized and cells elongated. Isoxaben did not depolymerize microtubules in vivo or inhibit the polymerization of tubulin in vitro. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that cellulose microfibrils, and hence cell elongation, are involved in providing spatial cues for cortical microtubule organization. These results compel us to extend the microtubule/microfibril paradigm to include the bidirectional flow of information.