The silver gene of Drosophila melanogaster encodes multiple carboxypeptidases similar to mammalian prohormone-processing enzymes.

The silver (svr) gene of Drosophila melanogaster is required for viability, and severe mutant alleles result in death prior to eclosion. Adult flies homozygous or hemizygous for weaker alleles display several visible phenotypes, including cuticular structures that are pale and silvery in color due to reduced melanization. We have identified and cloned the DNA encoding the svr gene and determined the sequence of several partially overlapping cDNAs derived from svr mRNAs. The predicted amino acid sequence of the polypeptides encoded by these cDNAs indicates that the silver proteins are members of the family of preprotein-processing carboxypeptidases that includes the human carboxypeptidases E, M, and N. One class of svr mRNAs is alternatively spliced to encode at least two polyproteins, each of which is composed of two carboxypeptidase domains.

Redirecting the specificity of ubiquitination by modifying ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes.

Depletion of specific cellular proteins is a powerful tool in biological research and has many medical and agricultural benefits. In contrast to genetic methods currently available to attenuate protein levels, we describe an alternative approach that redirects the ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic pathway to facilitate specific proteolytic removal. Degradation via the ubiquitin pathway requires the prior attachment of multiple ubiquitins to the target protein. This attachment is accomplished, in part, by a family of enzymes designated E2s (or ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes), some of which use domains near their C termini for target recognition. Here, we demonstrate that E2 target recognition can be redefined by engineering E2s to contain appropriate protein-binding peptides fused to their C termini. In five dissimilar examples, chimeric E2s were created that recognized and ubiquitinated their respective binding partners with high specificity. We also show that ubiquitination of one protein targeted by this method led to its ATP-dependent degradation in vitro. Thus, by exploiting interacting domains derived from natural and synthetic ligands, it may be possible to design E2s capable of directing the selective removal of many intracellular proteins.

Electrophile and antioxidant regulation of enzymes that detoxify carcinogens.

Detoxication (phase 2) enzymes, such as glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), NAD(P)H:(quinone-acceptor) oxidoreductase (QR), and UDP-glucuronsyltransferase, are induced in animal cells exposed to a variety of electrophilic compounds and phenolic antioxidants. Induction protects against the toxic and neoplastic effects of carcinogens and is mediated by activation of upstream electrophile-responsive/antioxidant-responsive elements (EpRE/ARE). The mechanism of activation of these enhancers was analyzed by transient gene expression of growth hormone reporter constructs containing a 41-bp region derived from the mouse GST Ya gene 5'-upstream region that contains the EpRE/ARE element and of constructs in which this element was replaced with either one or two consensus phorbol 12-tetradecanoate 13-acetate (TPA)-responsive elements (TREs). When these three constructs were compared in Hep G2 (human) and Hepa 1c1c7 (murine) hepatoma cells, the wild-type sequence was highly activated by diverse inducers, including tert-butylhydroquinone, Michael reaction acceptors, 1,2-dithiole-3-thione, sulforaphane,2,3-dimercapto-1-propanol, HgCl2, sodium arsenite, and phenylarsine oxide. In contrast, constructs with consensus TRE sites were not induced significantly. TPA in combination with these compounds led to additive or synergistic inductions of the EpRE/ARE construct, but induction of the TRE construct was similar to that induced by TPA alone. Transfection of the EpRE/ARE reporter construct into F9 cells, which lack endogenous TRE-binding proteins, produced large inductions by the same compounds, which also induced QR activity in these cells. We conclude that activation of the EpRE/ARE by electrophile and antioxidant inducers is mediated by EpRE/ARE-specific proteins.

Eukaryotic methionyl aminopeptidases: two classes of cobalt-dependent enzymes.

Using partial amino acid sequence data derived from porcine methionyl aminopeptidase (MetAP; methionine aminopeptidase, peptidase M; EC 3.4.11.18), a full-length clone of the homologous human enzyme has been obtained. The cDNA sequence contains 2569 nt with a single open reading frame corresponding to a protein of 478 amino acids. The C-terminal portion representing the catalytic domain shows limited identity with MetAP sequences from various prokaryotes and yeast, while the N terminus is rich in charged amino acids, including extended strings of basic and acidic residues. These highly polar stretches likely result in the spuriously high observed molecular mass (67 kDa). This cDNA sequence is highly similar to a rat protein, termed p67, which was identified as an inhibitor of phosphorylation of initiation factor eIF2 alpha and was previously predicted to be a metallopeptidase based on limited sequence homology. Model building established that human MetAP (p67) could be readily accommodated into the Escherichia coli MetAP structure and that the Co2+ ligands were fully preserved. However, human MetAP was found to be much more similar to a yeast open reading frame that differed markedly from the previously reported yeast MetAP. A similar partial sequence from Methanothermus fervidus suggests that this p67-like sequence is also found in prokaryotes. These findings suggest that there are two cobalt-dependent MetAP families, presently composed of the prokaryote and yeast sequences (and represented by the E. coli structure) (type I), on the one hand, and by human MetAP, the yeast open reading frame, and the partial prokaryotic sequence (type II), on the other.

Ergosteroids: induction of thermogenic enzymes in liver of rats treated with steroids derived from dehydroepiandrosterone.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), an intermediate in the biosynthesis of testosterone and estrogens, exerts several physiological effects not involving the sex hormones. When fed to rats it induces the thermogenic enzymes mitochondrial sn-glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and cytosolic malic enzyme in their livers. Animals and humans, and their excised tissues, are known to hydroxylate DHEA at several positions and to interconvert 7 alpha-hydroxy-DHEA, 7 beta-hydroxy-DHEA, 7-oxo-DHEA, and the corresponding derivatives of androst-5-enediol. We report here that these 7-oxygenated derivatives are active inducers of these thermogenic enzymes in rats and that the 7-oxo derivatives are more active than the parent steroids. We postulate that the 7 alpha-hydroxy and 7-oxo derivatives are on a metabolic pathway from DHEA to more active steroid hormones. These 7-oxo steroids have potential as therapeutic agents because of their increased activity and because they are not convertible to either testosterone or estrogens.

Induction of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes during terminal erythroid differentiation.

A global cellular reorganization occurs during the reticulocyte stage of erythroid differentiation. This reorganization is accomplished partly through programmed protein degradation. The selection of proteins for degradation can be mediated by covalent attachment of ubiquitin. We have cloned cDNAs encoding two ubiquitin-conjugating (E2) enzymes, E2-20K and E2-230K, and found their genes to be strongly induced during the differentiation of erythroblasts into reticulocytes. Induction of the E2-20K and E2-230K genes is specific, as transcript levels for at least two other ubiquitinating enzymes fall during erythroblast differentiation. In contrast to most proteins induced in reticulocytes, E2-20K and E2-230K enzymes are present at strongly reduced levels in erythrocytes and thus decline in abundance as reticulocyte maturation is completed. This result suggests that both enzymes function during the reticulocyte stage, when enhanced protein degradation has been observed. These data implicate regulated components of the ubiquitin conjugation machinery in erythroid differentiation.

Temporally distinct accumulation of transcripts encoding enzymes of the prechorismate pathway in elicitor-treated, cultured tomato cells.

The accumulation of phenylalanine-derived phenolic compounds is a well-known element of a plant's defense in response to pathogen attack. Phenylalanine, as well as the other two aromatic amino acids, tyrosine and tryptophan, is synthesized by way of the shikimate pathway. The first seven steps of the shikimate pathway (the prechorismate pathway) are common for the biosynthesis of all three aromatic amino acids. We have studied transcript levels of six genes--i.e., two 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate synthase genes, one shikimate kinase gene, one 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase gene, and two chorismate synthase genes--corresponding to four steps of the prechorismate pathway, in cultured tomato cells exposed to fungal elicitors. The abundance of transcripts specific for some of these genes increased 10- to 20-fold within 6 h after elicitor treatment, as did the abundance of phenylalanine ammonialyase-specific transcripts and the synthesis of ethylene. Interestingly, transcript accumulation occurred more rapidly for shikimate kinase than for the enzymes preceding or following it in the prechorismate pathway. Neither the inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis by aminoethoxyvinylglycine nor inhibition of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (EC 4.3.1.5) activity by 2-aminoindan-2-phosphonic acid affected the time course or extent of transcript accumulation. Thus, the increased demand for phenylalanine in the phenylpropanoid pathway required after elicitor treatment appears to be met by increased de novo synthesis of its biosynthetic enzymes.

Interfacial activation-based molecular bioimprinting of lipolytic enzymes.

Interfacial activation-based molecular (bio)-imprinting (IAMI) has been developed to rationally improve the performance of lipolytic enzymes in nonaqueous environments. The strategy combinedly exploits (i) the known dramatic enhancement of the protein conformational rigidity in a water-restricted milieu and (ii) the reported conformational changes associated with the activation of these enzymes at lipid-water interfaces, which basically involves an increased substrate accessibility to the active site and/or an induction of a more competent catalytic machinery. Six model enzymes have been assayed in several model reactions in nonaqueous media. The results, rationalized in light of the present biochemical and structural knowledge, show that the IAMI approach represents a straightforward, versatile method to generate manageable, activated (kinetically trapped) forms of lipolytic enzymes, providing under optimal conditions nonaqueous rate enhancements of up to two orders of magnitude. It is also shown that imprintability of lipolytic enzymes depends not only on the nature of the enzyme but also on the "quality" of the interface used as the template.