Reduction in levels of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27kip-1 coupled with transforming growth factor β neutralization induces cell-cycle entry and increases retroviral transduction of primitive human hematopoietic cells

Successful gene therapy depends on stable transduction of hematopoietic stem cells. Target cells must cycle to allow integration of Moloney-based retroviral vectors, yet hematopoietic stem cells are quiescent. Cells can be held in quiescence by intracellular cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p15INK4B blocks association of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4/cyclin D and p27kip-1 blocks activity of CDK2/cyclin A and CDK2/cyclin E, complexes that are mandatory for cell-cycle progression. Antibody neutralization of β transforming growth factor (TGFβ) in serum-free medium decreased levels of p15INK4B and increased colony formation and retroviral-mediated transduction of primary human CD34+ cells. Although TGFβ neutralization increased colony formation from more primitive, noncycling hematopoietic progenitors, no increase in M-phase-dependent, retroviral-mediated transduction was observed. Transduction of the primitive cells was augmented by culture in the presence of antisense oligonucleotides to p27kip-1 coupled with TGFβ-neutralizing antibodies. The transduced cells engrafted immune-deficient mice with no alteration in human hematopoietic lineage development. We conclude that neutralization of TGFβ, plus reduction in levels of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27, allows transduction of primitive and quiescent hematopoietic progenitor populations.

Distinct roles for E2F proteins in cell growth control and apoptosis

E2F transcription activity is composed of a family of heterodimers encoded by distinct genes. Through the overproduction of each of the five known E2F proteins in mammalian cells, we demonstrate that a large number of genes encoding proteins important for cell cycle regulation and DNA replication can be activated by the E2F proteins and that there are distinct specificities in the activation of these genes by individual E2F family members. Coexpression of each E2F protein with the DP1 heterodimeric partner does not significantly alter this specificity. We also find that only E2F1 overexpression induces cells to undergo apoptosis, despite the fact that at least two other E2F family members, E2F2 and E2F3, are equally capable of inducing S phase. The ability of E2F1 to induce apoptosis appears to result from the specific induction of an apoptosis-promoting activity rather than the lack of induction of a survival activity, because co-expression of E2F2 and E2F3 does not rescue cells from E2F1-mediated apoptosis. We conclude that E2F family members play distinct roles in cell cycle control and that E2F1 may function as a specific signal for the initiation of an apoptosis pathway that must normally be blocked for a productive proliferation event.

Specificity in transforming growth factor β-induced transcription of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 gene: Interactions of promoter DNA, transcription factor μE3, and Smad proteins

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) regulates a broad range of biological processes, including cell growth, development, differentiation, and immunity. TGF-β signals through its cell surface receptor serine kinases that phosphorylate Smad2 or Smad3 proteins. Because Smad3 and its partner Smad4 bind to only 4-bp Smad binding elements (SBEs) in DNA, a central question is how specificity of TGF-β-induced transcription is achieved. We show that Smad3 selectively binds to two of the three SBEs in PE2.1, a TGF-β-inducible fragment of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 promoter, to mediate TGF-β-induced transcription; moreover, a precise 3-bp spacer between one SBE and the E-box, a binding site for transcription factor μE3 (TFE3), is essential for TGF-β-induced transcription. Whereas an isolated Smad3 MH1 domain binds to TFE3, TGF-β receptor-mediated phosphorylation of full-length Smad3 enhances its binding to TFE3. Together, these studies elucidate an important mechanism for specificity in TGF-β-induced transcription of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 gene.

Synergistic inhibition of tumor growth in a murine mammary adenocarcinoma model by combinational gene therapy using IL-12, pro-IL-18, and IL-1β converting enzyme cDNA

We report here that a cancer gene therapy protocol using a combination of IL-12, pro-IL-18, and IL-1β converting enzyme (ICE) cDNA expression vectors simultaneously delivered via gene gun can significantly augment antitumor effects, evidently by generating increased levels of bioactive IL-18 and consequently IFN-γ. First, we compared the levels of IFN-γ secreted by mouse splenocytes stimulated with tumor cells transfected with various test genes, including IL-12 alone; pro-IL-18 alone; pro-IL-18 and ICE; IL-12 and pro-IL-18; and IL-12, pro-IL-18, and ICE. Among these treatments, the combination of IL-12, pro-IL-18, and ICE cDNA resulted in the highest level of IFN-γ production from splenocytes in vitro, and similar results were obtained when these same treatments were delivered to the skin of a mouse by gene gun and IFN-γ levels were measured at the skin transfection site in vivo. Furthermore, the triple gene combinatorial gene therapy protocol was the most effective among all tested groups at suppressing the growth of TS/A (murine mammary adenocarcinoma) tumors previously implanted intradermally at the skin site receiving DNA transfer by gene gun on days 6, 8, 10, and 12 after tumor implantation. Fifty percent of mice treated with the combined three-gene protocol underwent complete tumor regression. In vivo depletion experiments showed that this antitumor effect was CD8+ T cell-mediated and partially IFN-γ-dependent. These results suggest that a combinatorial gene therapy protocol using a mixture of IL-12, pro-IL-18, and ICE cDNAs can confer potent antitumor activities against established TS/A tumors via cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and IFN-γ-dependent pathways.

Glutamate transport in Rhodobacter sphaeroides is mediated by a novel binding protein-dependent secondary transport system

Growth of a glutamate transport-deficient mutant of Rhodobacter sphaeroides on glutamate as sole carbon and nitrogen source can be restored by the addition of millimolar amounts of Na+. Uptake of glutamate (Kt of 0.2 μM) by the mutant strictly requires Na+ (Km of 25 mM) and is inhibited by ionophores that collapse the proton motive force (pmf). The activity is osmotic-shock-sensitive and can be restored in spheroplasts by the addition of osmotic shock fluid. Transport of glutamate is also observed in membrane vesicles when Na+, a proton motive force, and purified glutamate binding protein are present. Both transport and binding is highly specific for glutamate. The Na+-dependent glutamate transporter of Rb. sphaeroides is an example of a secondary transport system that requires a periplasmic binding protein and may define a new family of bacterial transport proteins.

Sequential and coordinated action of phytochromes A and B during Arabidopsis stem growth revealed by kinetic analysis

Photoreceptor proteins of the phytochrome family mediate light-induced inhibition of stem (hypocotyl) elongation during the development of photoautotrophy in seedlings. Analyses of overt mutant phenotypes have established the importance of phytochromes A and B (phyA and phyB) in this developmental process, but kinetic information that would augment emerging molecular models of phytochrome signal transduction is absent. We have addressed this deficiency by genetically dissecting phytochrome-response kinetics, after having solved the technical issues that previously limited growth studies of small Arabidopsis seedlings. We show here, with resolution on the order of minutes, that phyA initiated hypocotyl growth inhibition upon the onset of continuous red light. This primary contribution of phyA began to decrease after 3 hr of irradiation, the same time at which immunochemically detectable phyA disappeared and an exclusively phyB-dependent phase of inhibition began. The sequential and coordinated actions of phyA and phyB in red light were not observed in far-red light, which inhibited growth persistently through an exclusively phyA-mediated pathway.

SMAD3/4-dependent transcriptional activation of the human type VII collagen gene (COL7A1) promoter by transforming growth factor β

The human type VII collagen gene (COL7A1) recently has been identified as an immediate-early response gene for transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)/SMAD signaling pathway. In this study, by using MDA-MB-468 SMAD4−/− breast carcinoma cells, we demonstrate that expression of SMAD4 is an absolute requirement for SMAD-mediated promoter activity. We also demonstrate that the SMAD binding sequence (SBS) representing the TGF-β response element in the region −496/−444 of the COL7A1 promoter functions as an enhancer in the context of a heterologous promoter. Electrophoretic mobility-shift assays with nuclear extracts from COS-1 cells transfected with expression vectors for SMADs 1–5 indicate that SMAD3 forms a complex with a migration similar to that of the endogenous TGF-β-specific complex observed in fibroblast extracts. Electrophoretic mobility-shift assays using recombinant glutathione S-transferase-SMAD fusion proteins indicate that both SMAD4 and C-terminally truncated SMAD3, but not SMAD2, can bind the COL7A1 SBS. Coexpression of SMAD3 and SMAD4 in COS-1 cells leads to the formation of two complexes: a DNA/protein complex containing SMAD3 alone and another slower-migrating complex containing both SMAD3 and SMAD4, the latter complex not being detected in fibroblasts. Maximal transactivation of COL7A1 SBS-driven promoters in either MDA-MB-468 carcinoma cells or fibroblasts requires concomitant overexpression of SMAD3 and SMAD4. These data may represent the first identification of a functional homomeric SMAD3 complex regulating a human gene.

Reciprocal interactions between β1-integrin and epidermal growth factor receptor in three-dimensional basement membrane breast cultures: A different perspective in epithelial biology

Anchorage and growth factor independence are cardinal features of the transformed phenotype. Although it is logical that the two pathways must be coregulated in normal tissues to maintain homeostasis, this has not been demonstrated directly. We showed previously that down-modulation of β1-integrin signaling reverted the malignant behavior of a human breast tumor cell line (T4–2) derived from phenotypically normal cells (HMT-3522) and led to growth arrest in a three-dimensional (3D) basement membrane assay in which the cells formed tissue-like acini (14). Here, we show that there is a bidirectional cross-modulation of β1-integrin and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The reciprocal modulation does not occur in monolayer (2D) cultures. Antibody-mediated inhibition of either of these receptors in the tumor cells, or inhibition of MAPK kinase, induced a concomitant down-regulation of both receptors, followed by growth-arrest and restoration of normal breast tissue morphogenesis. Cross-modulation and tissue morphogenesis were associated with attenuation of EGF-induced transient MAPK activation. To specifically test EGFR and β1-integrin interdependency, EGFR was overexpressed in nonmalignant cells, leading to disruption of morphogenesis and a compensatory up-regulation of β1-integrin expression, again only in 3D. Our results indicate that when breast cells are spatially organized as a result of contact with basement membrane, the signaling pathways become coupled and bidirectional. They further explain why breast cells fail to differentiate in monolayer cultures in which these events are mostly uncoupled. Moreover, in a subset of tumor cells in which these pathways are misregulated but functional, the cells could be “normalized” by manipulating either pathway.

Ligand-dependent development of the endothelial and hemopoietic lineages from embryonic mesodermal cells expressing vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2

The existence of a common precursor for endothelial and hemopoietic cells, termed the hemangioblast, has been postulated since the beginning of the century. Recently, deletion of the endothelial-specific vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) by gene targeting has shown that both endothelial and hemopoietic cells are absent in homozygous null mice. This observation suggested that VEGFR2 could be expressed by the hemangioblast and essential for its further differentiation along both lineages. However, it was not possible to exclude the hypothesis that hemopoietic failure was a secondary effect resulting from the absence of an endothelial cell microenvironment. To distinguish between these two hypotheses, we have produced a mAb directed against the extracellular domain of avian VEGFR2 and isolated VEGFR2+ cells from the mesoderm of chicken embryos at the gastrulation stage. We have found that in clonal cultures, a VEGFR2+ cell gives rise to either a hemopoietic or an endothelial cell colony. The developmental decision appears to be regulated by the binding of two different VEGFR2 ligands. Thus, endothelial differentiation requires VEGF, whereas hemopoietic differentiation occurs in the absence of VEGF and is significantly reduced by soluble VEGFR2, showing that this process could be mediated by a second, yet unidentified, VEGFR2 ligand. These observations thus suggest strongly that in the absence of the VEGFR2 gene product, the precursors of both hemopoietic and vascular endothelial lineages cannot survive. These cells therefore might be the initial targets of the VEGFR2 null mutation.

Transforming growth factor β targeted inactivation of cyclin E:cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2) complexes by inhibition of Cdk2 activating kinase activity

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)-mediated G1 arrest previously has been shown to specifically target inactivation of cyclin D:cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) 4/6 complexes. We report here that TGF-β-treated human HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells arrest in G1, but retain continued cyclin D:Cdk4/6 activity and active, hypophosphorylated retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein. Consistent with this observation, TGF-β-treated cells failed to induce p15INK4b, down-regulate CDC25A, or increase levels of p21CIP1, p27KIP1, and p57KIP2. However, TGF-β treatment resulted in the specific inactivation of cyclin E:Cdk2 complexes caused by absence of the activating Thr160 phosphorylation on Cdk2. Whole-cell lysates from TGF-β-treated cells showed inhibition of Cdk2 Thr160 Cdk activating kinase (CAK) activity; however, cyclin H:Cdk7 activity, a previously assumed mammalian CAK, was not altered. Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains a genetically and biochemically proven CAK gene, CAK1, that encodes a monomeric 44-kDa Cak1p protein unrelated to Cdk7. Anti-Cak1p antibodies cross-reacted with a 45-kDa human protein with CAK activity that was specifically down-regulated in response to TGF-β treatment. Taken together, these observations demonstrate that TGF-β signaling mediates a G1 arrest in HepG2 cells by targeting Cdk2 CAK and suggests the presence of at least two mammalian CAKs: one specific for Cdk2 and one for Cdk4/6.

Developmental dissociation of thymic dendritic cell and thymocyte lineages revealed in growth factor receptor mutant mice

Thymocytes and thymic dendritic cell (DC) lineages develop simultaneously and may originate from a common intrathymic progenitor. Mice deficient for two growth factor receptor molecules [c-kit and the common cytokine receptor γ chain (γc)] lack all thymocytes including T cell progenitors. Despite this lack of pro-T cells, thymic DC compartments were identified in c-kit−γc− mice. Thus, c-kit- and γc-mediated signals are not essential to generate thymic DCs. In addition, pro-T cells do not appear to be obligatory progenitors of thymic DCs, because DC development is dissociated from the generation of thymocytes in these mice. Thymic DCs in c-kit−γc− mice are phenotypically and functionally normal. In contrast to wild-type mice, however, thymic DCs in c-kit−γc− and, notably, in RAG-2-deficient mice are CD8αneg/low, indicating that CD8α expression on thymic DCs is not independent of thymocytes developing beyond the “RAG-block.”

Expression of multiple insulin and insulin-like growth factor receptor genes in salmon gill cartilage

In mammals, one of the major actions of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) is to increase skeletal growth by stimulating new cartilage formation. IGF-I stimulates chondrocytes in vitro to synthesize new cartilage matrix, measured by enhanced uptake of 35S-sulfate, but the addition of insulin does not produce a similar effect except when added at high concentrations. However, recent studies have shown that, in teleosts, both insulin and IGF-I are potent activators of 35S-sulfate uptake in gill cartilage. To further characterize the growth-promoting activities of these hormones in fish, we have used reverse transcriptase-linked PCR to analyze the expression of insulin receptor family genes in salmon gill cartilage. Partial cDNA sequences encoding the tyrosine kinase domains from six distinct members of the IR gene family were obtained, and sequence comparisons revealed that four of the cDNAs encoded amino acid sequences that were highly homologous to human IR whereas the encoded sequences from two of the cDNAs were more similar to the human type I IGF receptor (IGF-R). Furthermore, a comparative reverse transcriptase-linked PCR assay revealed that the four putative IR mRNAs expressed in toto in gill cartilage were 56% of that found in liver whereas the expressed amount of the two IGF-R mRNAs was 9-fold higher compared with liver. These results suggest that the chondrogenic actions of insulin and IGF-I in fish are mediated by the ligands binding to their cognate receptors. However, further studies will be required to characterize the binding properties and relative contribution of the individual IR and IGF-R genes.

Parasite-mediated nuclear factor κB regulation in lymphoproliferation caused by Theileria parva infection

Infection of cattle with the protozoan Theileria parva results in uncontrolled T lymphocyte proliferation resulting in lesions resembling multicentric lymphoma. Parasitized cells exhibit autocrine growth characterized by persistent translocation of the transcriptional regulatory factor nuclear factor κB (NFκB) to the nucleus and consequent enhanced expression of interleukin 2 and the interleukin 2 receptor. How T. parva induces persistent NFκB activation, required for T cell activation and proliferation, is unknown. We hypothesized that the parasite induces degradation of the IκB molecules which normally sequester NFκB in the cytoplasm and that continuous degradation requires viable parasites. Using T. parva-infected T cells, we showed that the parasite mediates continuous phosphorylation and proteolysis of IκBα. However, IκBα reaccumulated to high levels in parasitized cells, which indicated that T. parva did not alter the normal NFκB-mediated positive feedback loop which restores cytoplasmic IκBα. In contrast, T. parva mediated continuous degradation of IκBβ resulting in persistently low cytoplasmic IκBβ levels. Normal IκBβ levels were only restored following T. parva killing, indicating that viable parasites are required for IκBβ degradation. Treatment of T. parva-infected cells with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, a metal chelator, blocked both IκB degradation and consequent enhanced expression of NFκB dependent genes. However treatment using the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine had no effect on either IκB levels or NFκB activation, indicating that the parasite subverts the normal IκB regulatory pathway downstream of the requirement for reactive oxygen intermediates. Identification of the critical points regulated by T. parva may provide new approaches for disease control as well as increase our understanding of normal T cell function.

Synergistic inhibition of human cancer cell growth by cytotoxic drugs and mixed backbone antisense oligonucleotide targeting protein kinase A

Protein kinase A type I plays a key role in neoplastic transformation, conveying mitogenic signals of different growth factors and oncogenes. Inhibition of protein kinase A type I by antisense oligonucleotides targeting its RIα regulatory subunit results in cancer cell growth inhibition in vitro and in vivo. A novel mixed backbone oligonucleotide HYB 190 and its mismatched control HYB 239 were tested on soft agar growth of several human cancer cell types. HYB 190 demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of colony formation in all cell lines whereas the HYB 239 at the same doses caused a modest or no growth inhibition. A noninhibitory dose of each mixed backbone oligonucleotide was used in OVCAR-3 ovarian and GEO colon cancer cells to study whether any cooperative effect may occur between the antisense and a series of cytotoxic drugs acting by different mechanisms. Treatment with HYB 190 resulted in an additive growth inhibitory effect with several cytotoxic drugs when measured by soft agar colony formation. A synergistic growth inhibition, which correlated with increased apoptosis, was observed when HYB 190 was added to cancer cells treated with taxanes, platinum-based compounds, and topoisomerase II selective drugs. This synergistic effect was also observed in breast cancer cells and was obtained with other related drugs such as docetaxel and carboplatin. Combination of HYB 190 and paclitaxel resulted in an accumulation of cells in late S-G2 phases of cell cycle and marked induction of apoptosis. A cooperative effect of HYB 190 and paclitaxel was also obtained in vivo in nude mice bearing human GEO colon cancer xenografts. These results are the first report of a cooperative growth inhibitory effect obtained in a variety of human cancer cell lines by antisense mixed backbone oligonucleotide targeting protein kinase A type I-mediated mitogenic signals and specific cytotoxic drugs.

The Epstein–Barr virus oncogene product latent membrane protein 1 engages the tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated death domain protein to mediate B lymphocyte growth transformation and activate NF-κB

The Epstein–Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is essential for the transformation of B lymphocytes into lymphoblastoid cell lines. Previous data are consistent with a model that LMP1 is a constitutively activated receptor that transduces signals for transformation through its carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic tail. One transformation effector site (TES1), located within the membrane proximal 45 residues of the cytoplasmic tail, constitutively engages tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors. Signals from TES1 are sufficient to drive initial proliferation of infected resting B lymphocytes, but most lymphoblastoid cells infected with a virus that does not express the 155 residues beyond TES1 fail to grow as long-term cell lines. We now find that mutating two tyrosines to an isoleucine at the carboxyl end of the cytoplasmic tail cripples the ability of EBV to cause lymphoblastoid cell outgrowth, thereby marking a second transformation effector site, TES2. A yeast two-hybrid screen identified TES2 interacting proteins, including the tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated death domain protein (TRADD). TRADD was the only protein that interacted with wild-type TES2 and not with isoleucine-mutated TES2. TRADD associated with wild-type LMP1 but not with isoleucine-mutated LMP1 in mammalian cells, and TRADD constitutively associated with LMP1 in EBV-transformed cells. In transfection assays, TRADD and TES2 synergistically mediated high-level NF-κB activation. These results indicate that LMP1 appropriates TRADD to enable efficient long-term lymphoblastoid cell outgrowth. High-level NF-κB activation also appears to be a critical component of long-term outgrowth.