A targeted mutation in the murine gene encoding the high density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor scavenger receptor class B type I reveals its key role in HDL metabolism

Plasma high density lipoprotein (HDL), which protects against atherosclerosis, is thought to remove cholesterol from peripheral tissues and to deliver cholesteryl esters via a selective uptake pathway to the liver (reverse cholesterol transport) and steroidogenic tissues (e.g., adrenal gland for storage and hormone synthesis). Despite its physiologic and pathophysiologic importance, the cellular metabolism of HDL has not been well defined. The class B, type I scavenger receptor (SR-BI) has been proposed to play an important role in HDL metabolism because (i) it is a cell surface HDL receptor which mediates selective cholesterol uptake in cultured cells, (ii) its physiologically regulated expression is most abundant in the liver and steroidogenic tissues, and (iii) hepatic overexpression dramatically lowers plasma HDL. To test directly the normal role of SR-BI in HDL metabolism, we generated mice with a targeted null mutation in the SR-BI gene. In heterozygous and homozygous mutants relative to wild-type controls, plasma cholesterol concentrations were increased by ≈31% and 125%, respectively, because of the formation of large, apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I)-containing particles, and adrenal gland cholesterol content decreased by 42% and 72%, respectively. The plasma concentration of apoA-I, the major protein in HDL, was unchanged in the mutants. This, in conjunction with the increased lipoprotein size, suggests that the increased plasma cholesterol in the mutants was due to decreased selective cholesterol uptake. These results provide strong support for the proposal that in mice the gene encoding SR-BI plays a key role in determining the levels of plasma lipoprotein cholesterol (primarily HDL) and the accumulation of cholesterol stores in the adrenal gland. If it has a similar role in controlling plasma HDL in humans, SR-BI may influence the development and progression of atherosclerosis and may be an attractive candidate for therapeutic intervention in this disease.

Lamellar lipoproteins uniquely contribute to hyperlipidemia in mice doubly deficient in apolipoprotein E and hepatic lipase

Remnants of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins containing apolipoprotein (apo) B-48 accumulate in apo E-deficient mice, causing pronounced hypercholesterolemia. Mice doubly deficient in apo E and hepatic lipase have more pronounced hypercholesterolemia, even though remnants do not accumulate appreciably in mice deficient in hepatic lipase alone. Here we show that the doubly deficient mice manifest a unique lamellar hyperlipoproteinemia, characterized by vesicular particles 600 Å–1,300 Å in diameter. As seen by negative-staining electron microscopy, these lipoproteins also contain an electron-lucent region adjacent to the vesicle wall, similar to the core of typical lipoproteins. Correlative chemical analysis indicates that the vesicle wall is composed of a 1:1 molar mixture of cholesterol and phospholipids, whereas the electron-lucent region appears to be composed of cholesteryl esters (about 12% of the particle mass). Like the spherical lipoproteins of doubly deficient mice, the vesicular particles contain apo B-48, but they are particularly rich in apo A-IV. We propose that cholesteryl esters are removed from spherical lipoproteins of these mice by scavenger receptor B1, leaving behind polar lipid-rich particles that fuse to form vesicular lipoproteins. Hepatic lipase may prevent such vesicular lipoproteins from accumulating in apo E-deficient mice by hydrolyzing phosphatidyl choline as scavenger receptor B1 removes the cholesteryl esters and by gradual endocytosis of lipoproteins bound to hepatic lipase on the surface of hepatocytes.

Expression of scavenger receptor class B type 1 (SR-BI) promotes microvillar channel formation and selective cholesteryl ester transport in a heterologous reconstituted system

In the “selective” cholesteryl ester (CE) uptake process, surface-associated lipoproteins [high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein] are trapped in the space formed between closely apposed surface microvilli (microvillar channels) in hormone-stimulated steroidogenic cells. This is the same location where an HDL receptor (SR-BI) is found. In the current study, we sought to understand the relationship between SR-BI and selective CE uptake in a heterologous insect cell system. Sf9 (Spodoptera frugiperda) cells overexpressing recombinant SR-BI were examined for (i) SR-BI protein by Western blot analysis and light or electron immunomicroscopy, and (ii) selective lipoprotein CE uptake by the use of radiolabeled or fluorescent (BODIPY-CE)-labeled HDL. Noninfected or infected control Sf9 cells do not express SR-BI, show microvillar channels, or internalize CEs. An unexpected finding was the induction of a complex channel system in Sf9 cells expressing SR-BI. SR-BI-expressing cells showed many cell surface double-membraned channels, immunogold SR-BI, apolipoprotein (HDL) labeling of the channels, and high levels of selective HDL-CE uptake. Thus, double-membraned channels can be induced by expression of recombinant SR-BI in a heterologous system, and these specialized structures facilitate both the binding of HDL and selective HDL-CE uptake.

Rapid induction of intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice

Cultured hippocampal slices prepared from apolipoprotein E-deficient mice were exposed to an inhibitor of cathepsins B and L and then processed for immunocytochemistry using antibodies against human paired helical filaments. Dense, AT8-immunopositive deposits were found in the subiculum, stratum oriens of hippocampal field CA1, and the hilus of the dentate gyrus. This distribution agrees with that described for tangles in Alzheimer's disease. The appearance of the labeled structures fell into categories that correspond to previously proposed stages in the progression of intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles in human hippocampus. Electron microscopic analyses confirmed that microtubule disruption and twisted bundles of filaments were present in neurons in the affected areas. These results support the hypothesis that partial lysosomal dysfunction is a contributor to Alzheimer's disease and suggest a simple model for studying an important component of the disease.

Estrogen reduces atherosclerotic lesion development in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.

We have studied the effects of endogenous and exogenous estrogen on atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Female mice ovariectomized (OVX) at weaning displayed increases (P < 0.01) in fatty streak lesions in the proximal aorta and aortic sinus compared with female mice with intact ovarian function. These differences between the OVX and sham controls were apparent in both chow- and "Western-type" diet-fed mice. Moreover, increases in lesion size following OVX occurred without changes in plasma cholesterol. Hormone replacement with subdermal 17-beta-estradiol pellets releasing either 6, 14, or 28 micrograms/day significantly decreased (P < 0.001) atherosclerotic lesion area in both male and OVX female mice. In contrast, neither 17-alpha-estradiol (28 micrograms/day) or tamoxifen (85 micrograms/day) affected lesion progression in OVX female mice. In the Western diet-fed group, exogenous estradiol markedly reduced plasma cholesterol and triglycerides, whereas, in animals fed the chow diet, exogenous estrogen and tamoxifen treatment only decreased plasma and very low density lipoprotein triglycerides. However, lesion area was only weakly correlated with plasma cholesterol and triglycerides, 0.35 and 0.44 tau values, respectively (P < 0.01). In summary, in the apolipoprotein E-deficient mouse 17-beta-estradiol protects against atherosclerotic lesion formation, and this can only be partially explained through effects on plasma lipoprotein levels.

Phenotypic analysis of mice expressing exclusively apolipoprotein B48 or apolipoprotein B100.

Apolipoprotein (apo)-B is found in two forms in mammals: apo-B100, which is made in the liver and the yolk sac, and apo-B48, a truncated protein made in the intestine. To provide models for understanding the physiologic purpose for the two forms of apo-B, we used targeted mutagenesis of the apo-B gene to generate mice that synthesize exclusively apo-B48 (apo-B48-only mice) and mice that synthesize exclusively apo-B100 (apo-B100-only mice). Both the apo-B48-only mice and apo-B100-only mice developed normally, were healthy, and were fertile. Thus, apo-B48 synthesis was sufficient for normal embryonic development, and the synthesis of apo-B100 in the intestines of adult mice caused no readily apparent adverse effects on intestinal function or nutrition. Compared with wild-type mice fed a chow diet, the levels of low density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein- and LDL-triacylglycerols were lower in apo-B48-only mice and higher in the apo-B100-only mice. In the setting of apo-E-deficiency, the apo-B100-only mutation lowered cholesterol levels, consistent with the fact that apo-B100-lipoproteins can be cleared from the plasma via the LDL receptor, whereas apo-B48-lipoproteins lacking apo-E cannot. The apo-B48-only and apo-B100-only mice should prove to be valuable models for experiments designed to understand the purpose for the two forms of apo-B in mammalian metabolism.

A human axillary odorant is carried by apolipoprotein D.

The characterization of the source of the odor in the human axillary region is not only of commercial interest but is also important biologically because axillary extracts can alter the length and timing of the female menstrual cycle. In males, the most abundant odor component is known to be E-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid (E-3M2H), which is liberated from nonodorous apocrine secretions by axillary microorganisms. Recently, it was found that in the apocrine gland secretions, 3M2H is carried to the skin surface bound to two proteins, apocrine secretion odor-binding proteins 1 and 2 (ASOB1 and ASOB2) with apparent molecular masses of 45 kDa and 26 kDa, respectively. To better understand the formation of axillary odors and the structural relationship between 3M2H and its carrier protein, the amino acid sequence and glycosylation pattern of ASOB2 were determined by mass spectrometry. The ASOB2 protein was identified as apolipoprotein D (apoD), a known member of the alpha2mu-microglobulin superfamily of carrier proteins also known as lipocalins. The pattern of glycosylation for axillary apoD differs from that reported for plasma apoD, suggesting different sites of expression for the two glycoproteins. In situ hybridization of an oligonucleotide probe against apoD mRNA with axillary tissue demonstrates that the message for synthesis of this protein is specific to the apocrine glands. These results suggest a remarkable similarity between human axillary secretions and nonhuman mammalian odor sources, where lipocalins have been shown to carry the odoriferous signals used in pheromonal communication.

Glycoprotein 330/megalin: probable role in receptor-mediated transport of apolipoprotein J alone and in a complex with Alzheimer disease amyloid beta at the blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers.

A soluble form of Alzheimer disease amyloid beta-protein (sA beta) is transported in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid mainly complexed with apolipoprotein J (apoJ). Using a well-characterized in situ perfused guinea pig brain model, we recently obtained preliminary evidence that apoJ facilitates transport of sA beta (1-40)-apoJ complexes across the blood-brain barrier and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, but the mechanisms remain poorly understood. In the present study, we examined the transport process in greater detail and investigated the possible role of glycoprotein 330 (gp330)/megalin, a receptor for multiple ligands, including apoJ. High-affinity transport systems with a Km of 0.2 and 0.5 nM were demonstrated for apoJ at the blood-brain barrier and the choroid epithelium in vivo, suggesting a specific receptor-mediated mechanism. The sA beta (1-40)-apoJ complex shared the same transport mechanism and exhibited 2.4- to 10.2-fold higher affinity than apoJ itself. Binding to microvessels, transport into brain parenchyma, and choroidal uptake of both apoJ and sA beta (1-40)-apoJ complexes were markedly inhibited (74-99%) in the presence of a monoclonal antibody to gp330/megalin and were virtually abolished by perfusion with the receptor-associated protein, which blocks binding of all known ligands to gp330. Western blot analysis of cerebral microvessels with the monoclonal antibody to gp330 revealed a protein with a mass identical to that in extracts of kidney membranes enriched with gp330/megalin, but in much lower concentration. The findings suggest that gp330/megalin mediates cellular uptake and transport of apoJ and sA beta (1-40)-apoJ complex at the cerebral vascular endothelium and choroid epithelium.

Discovery of a brain promoter from the human transferrin gene and its utilization for development of transgenic mice that express human apolipoprotein E alleles.

Transgenic mice carrying heterologous genes directed by a 670-bp segment of the regulatory sequence from the human transferrin (TF) gene demonstrated high expression in brain. Mice carrying the chimeric 0.67kbTF-CAT gene expressed TF-CAT in neurons and glial cells of the nucleus basalis, the cerebrum, corpus callosum, cerebellum, and hippocampus. In brains from two independent TF-CAT transgenic founder lines, copy number of TF-CAT mRNA exceeded the number of mRNA transcripts encoding either mouse endogenous transferrin or mouse endogenous amyloid precursor protein. In two transgenic founder lines, the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) protein synthesized from the TF-CAT mRNA was estimated to be 0.10-0.15% of the total soluble proteins of the brain. High expression observed in brain indicates that the 0.67kbTF promoter is a promising director of brain expression of heterologous genes. Therefore, the promoter has been used to express the three common human apolipoprotein E (apoE) alleles in transgenic mouse brains. The apoE alleles have been implicated in the expression of Alzheimer disease, and the human apoE isoforms are reported to interact with different affinities to the brain beta-amyloid and tau protein in vitro. Results of this study demonstrate high expression and production of human apoE proteins in transgenic mouse brains. The model may be used to characterize the interaction of human apoE isoforms with other brain proteins and provide information helpful in designing therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer disease.

Apolipoprotein E4 allele as a predictor of cholinergic deficits and treatment outcome in Alzheimer disease.

Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is critical in the modulation of cholesterol and phospholipid transport between cells of different types. Human apoE is a polymorphic protein with three common alleles, APO epsilon 2, APO epsilon 3, and APO epsilon 4. ApoE4 is associated with sporadic and late-onset familial Alzheimer disease (AD). Gene dose was shown to have an effect on risk of developing AD, age of onset, accumulation of senile plaques in the brain, and reduction of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity in the hippocampus of AD subjects. To characterize the possible impact of the apoE4 allele on cholinergic markers in AD, we examined the effect of apoE4 allele copy number on pre- and postsynaptic markers of cholinergic activity. ApoE4 allele copy number showed an inverse relationship with residual brain ChAT activity and nicotinic receptor binding sites in both the hippocampal formation and the temporal cortex of AD subjects. AD cases lacking the apoE4 allele showed ChAT activities close or within age-matched normal control values. The effect of the apoE4 allele on cholinomimetic drug responsiveness was assessed next in a group (n = 40) of AD patients who completed a double-blind, 30-week clinical trial of the cholinesterase inhibitor tacrine. Results showed that > 80% of apoE4-negative AD patients showed marked improvement after 30 weeks as measured by the AD assessment scale (ADAS), whereas 60% of apoE4 carriers had ADAS scores that were worse compared to baseline. These results strongly support the concept that apoE4 plays a crucial role in the cholinergic dysfunction associated with AD and may be a prognostic indicator of poor response to therapy with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in AD patients.

Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein mediates apolipoprotein E-dependent neurite outgrowth in a central nervous system-derived neuronal cell line.

The epsilon 4 allele of apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a major risk factor for Alzheimer disease, suggesting that apoE may directly influence neurons in the aging brain. Recent data suggest that apoE-containing lipoproteins can influence neurite outgrowth in an isoform-specific fashion. The neuronal mediators of apoE effects have not been clarified. We show here that in a central nervous system-derived neuronal cell line, apoE3 but not apoE4 increases neurite extension. The effect of apoE3 was blocked at low nanomolar concentrations by purified 39-kDa protein that regulates ligand binding to the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP). Anti-LRP antibody also completely abolished the neurite-promoting effect of apoE3. Understanding isoform-specific cell biological processes mediated by apoE-LRP interactions in central nervous system neurons may provide insight into Alzheimer disease pathogenesis.

Quantitative analysis of senile plaques in Alzheimer disease: observation of log-normal size distribution and molecular epidemiology of differences associated with apolipoprotein E genotype and trisomy 21 (Down syndrome).

The discovery that the epsilon 4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (apoE) gene is a putative risk factor for Alzheimer disease (AD) in the general population has highlighted the role of genetic influences in this extremely common and disabling illness. It has long been recognized that another genetic abnormality, trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), is associated with early and severe development of AD neuropathological lesions. It remains a challenge, however, to understand how these facts relate to the pathological changes in the brains of AD patients. We used computerized image analysis to examine the size distribution of one of the characteristic neuropathological lesions in AD, deposits of A beta peptide in senile plaques (SPs). Surprisingly, we find that a log-normal distribution fits the SP size distribution quite well, motivating a porous model of SP morphogenesis. We then analyzed SP size distribution curves in genotypically defined subgroups of AD patients. The data demonstrate that both apoE epsilon 4/AD and trisomy 21/AD lead to increased amyloid deposition, but by apparently different mechanisms. The size distribution curve is shifted toward larger plaques in trisomy 21/AD, probably reflecting increased A beta production. In apoE epsilon 4/AD, the size distribution is unchanged but the number of SP is increased compared to apoE epsilon 3, suggesting increased probability of SP initiation. These results demonstrate that subgroups of AD patients defined on the basis of molecular characteristics have quantitatively different neuropathological phenotypes.