Two-temperature model of the coronal irradiated pellets

A two electron-temperature, quasi-steady model of the corona of a laser-ablated pellet is considered. Ablation pressure, critical radius and mass flow rate are determined. Results are close to those obtained with heat flux saturation well below the free-streaming limit.

Comparison of the seismic behaviour between three building tests, all based on a two storey model house

Integral Masonry System consisting of intersecting steel trusses alo ng each of the three dimensional directions of space on walls and slabs using any masonry material, had yet been backed up by the previous adobe test for seismic areas. This paper presents the comparison this last test and the adaptation of the IMS using h ollow brick. A prototype based on a two storey model house (6mx6mx6m) has being also built in two different scales in order to maximize the load and size of the shake table: the first one half size the whole building (3mx3mx3m) and the second, a quarter of the real size (3mx3mx6m). Both tests have suffered some mild to moderate damages while supporting the higher seismic action subjected by the shake table, without even fissuring the first test and with very few damages the second one. The thickness of the hollow brick wall and the diameter of the tree - dimensional truss reinforcement were scaled to the real size test in order to ascertain its great structural behaviour in relation to the previous structural model calculations. The aim of this study is to sum marize the results of the research collaboration between the ETSAM - UPM and the PUCP in whose laboratory these tests were carried out.

Laser ablation modelling of aluminium, silver and crystalline silicon for applications in photovoltaic technologies

Laser material processing is being extensively used in photovoltaic applications for both the fabrication of thin film modules and the enhancement of the crystalline silicon solar cells. The two temperature model for thermal diffusion was numerically solved in this paper. Laser pulses of 1064, 532 or 248 nm with duration of 35, 26 or 10 ns were considered as the thermal source leading to the material ablation. Considering high irradiance levels (108–109 W cm−2), a total absorption of the energy during the ablation process was assumed in the model. The materials analysed in the simulation were aluminium (Al) and silver (Ag), which are commonly used as metallic electrodes in photovoltaic devices. Moreover, thermal diffusion was also simulated for crystalline silicon (c-Si). A similar trend of temperature as a function of depth and time was found for both metals and c-Si regardless of the employed wavelength. For each material, the ablation depth dependence on laser pulse parameters was determined by means of an ablation criterion. Thus, after the laser pulse, the maximum depth for which the total energy stored in the material is equal to the vaporisation enthalpy was considered as the ablation depth. For all cases, the ablation depth increased with the laser pulse fluence and did not exhibit a clear correlation with the radiation wavelength. Finally, the experimental validation of the simulation results was carried out and the ability of the model with the initial hypothesis of total energy absorption to closely fit experimental results was confirmed.

Electron temperature versus laser intensity times wavelength squared: a comparison of theory and experiments

The peak temperature in the corona of plasma ejected by a laser-irradiated slab is discussed in terms of a one-electron-temperature model. Both heat-flux saturation and pulse rise-time effects are considered;the intensity in the rising half of the pulse is approximated by a linear function of time, I(t) = Iot/r. The temperature is found to be proportional to (IQX2)273 and a function of I0X4/r. Above a certain value of I0X4/T, the plasma presents two characteristic temperatures (at saturation and at the critical surface) which can be identified with experimentally observed cold- and hot-electron temperatures. The results are compared with extensive experimental data available for both nd and CO2 lasers, I0(W'cnf2) X2 (/um) starting around 1012. The agreement is good if substantial flux inhibition is assumed (flux-limit factor f = 0.03), and fails for I0X2 above 1O1S. Results for both ablation pressure and mass ablation rate are also given.

Analysis of Magnetic Nozzles For Space Plasma Thrusters = Análisis de Toberas Magnéticas para Motores Espaciales de Plasma

Esta tesis presenta un análisis teórico del funcionamiento de toberas magnéticas para la propulsión espacial por plasmas. El estudio está basado en un modelo tridimensional y bi-fluido de la expansión supersónica de un plasma caliente en un campo magnético divergente. El modelo básico es ampliado progresivamente con la inclusión de términos convectivos dominantes de electrones, el campo magnético inducido por el plasma, poblaciones electrónicas múltiples a distintas temperaturas, y la capacidad de integrar el flujo en la región de expansión lejana. La respuesta hiperbólica del plasma es integrada con alta precisión y eficiencia haciendo uso del método de las líneas características. Se realiza una caracterización paramétrica de la expansión 2D del plasma en términos del grado de magnetización de iones, la geometría del campo magnético, y el perfil inicial del plasma. Se investigan los mecanismos de aceleración, mostrando que el campo ambipolar convierte la energía interna de electrones en energía dirigida de iones. Las corrientes diamagnéticas de Hall, que pueden hallarse distribuidas en el volumen del plasma o localizadas en una delgada capa de corriente en el borde del chorro, son esenciales para la operación de la tobera, ya que la fuerza magnética repulsiva sobre ellas es la encargada de confinar radialmente y acelerar axialmente el plasma. El empuje magnético es la reacción a esta fuerza sobre el motor. La respuesta del plasma muestra la separación gradual hacia adentro de los tubos de iones respecto de los magnéticos, lo cual produce la formación de corrientes eléctricas longitudinales y pone el plasma en rotación. La ganancia de empuje obtenida y las pérdidas radiales de la pluma de plasma se evalúan en función de los parámetros de diseño. Se analiza en detalle la separación magnética del plasma aguas abajo respecto a las líneas magnéticas (cerradas sobre sí mismas), necesaria para la aplicación de la tobera magnética a fines propulsivos. Se demuestra que tres teorías existentes sobre separación, que se fundamentan en la resistividad del plasma, la inercia de electrones, y el campo magnético que induce el plasma, son inadecuadas para la tobera magnética propulsiva, ya que producen separación hacia afuera en lugar de hacia adentro, aumentando la divergencia de la pluma. En su lugar, se muestra que la separación del plasma tiene lugar gracias a la inercia de iones y la desmagnetización gradual del plasma que tiene lugar aguas abajo, que permiten la separación ilimitada del flujo de iones respecto a las líneas de campo en condiciones muy generales. Se evalúa la cantidad de plasma que permanece unida al campo magnético y retorna hacia el motor a lo largo de las líneas cerradas de campo, mostrando que es marginal. Se muestra cómo el campo magnético inducido por el plasma incrementa la divergencia de la tobera magnética y por ende de la pluma de plasma en el caso propulsivo, contrariamente a las predicciones existentes. Se muestra también cómo el inducido favorece la desmagnetización del núcleo del chorro, acelerando la separación magnética. La hipótesis de ambipolaridad de corriente local, común a varios modelos de tobera magnética existentes, es discutida críticamente, mostrando que es inadecuada para el estudio de la separación de plasma. Una inconsistencia grave en la derivación matemática de uno de los modelos más aceptados es señalada y comentada. Incluyendo una especie adicional de electrones supratérmicos en el modelo, se estudia la formación y geometría de dobles capas eléctricas en el interior del plasma. Cuando dicha capa se forma, su curvatura aumenta cuanto más periféricamente se inyecten los electrones supratérmicos, cuanto menor sea el campo magnético, y cuanto más divergente sea la tobera magnética. El plasma con dos temperaturas electrónicas posee un mayor ratio de empuje magnético frente a total. A pesar de ello, no se encuentra ninguna ventaja propulsiva de las dobles capas, reforzando las críticas existentes frente a las propuestas de estas formaciones como un mecanismo de empuje. Por último, se presenta una formulación general de modelos autosemejantes de la expansión 2D de una pluma no magnetizada en el vacío. El error asociado a la hipótesis de autosemejanza es calculado, mostrando que es pequeño para plumas hipersónicas. Tres modelos de la literatura son particularizados a partir de la formulación general y comparados. Abstract This Thesis presents a theoretical analysis of the operation of magnetic nozzles for plasma space propulsion. The study is based on a two-dimensional, two-fluid model of the supersonic expansion of a hot plasma in a divergent magnetic field. The basic model is extended progressively to include the dominant electron convective terms, the plasma-induced magnetic field, multi-temperature electron populations, and the capability to integrate the plasma flow in the far expansion region. The hyperbolic plasma response is integrated accurately and efficiently with the method of the characteristic lines. The 2D plasma expansion is characterized parametrically in terms of the ion magnetization strength, the magnetic field geometry, and the initial plasma profile. Acceleration mechanisms are investigated, showing that the ambipolar electric field converts the internal electron energy into directed ion energy. The diamagnetic electron Hall current, which can be distributed in the plasma volume or localized in a thin current sheet at the jet edge, is shown to be central for the operation of the magnetic nozzle. The repelling magnetic force on this current is responsible for the radial confinement and axial acceleration of the plasma, and magnetic thrust is the reaction to this force on the magnetic coils of the thruster. The plasma response exhibits a gradual inward separation of the ion streamtubes from the magnetic streamtubes, which focuses the jet about the nozzle axis, gives rise to the formation of longitudinal currents and sets the plasma into rotation. The obtained thrust gain in the magnetic nozzle and radial plasma losses are evaluated as a function of the design parameters. The downstream plasma detachment from the closed magnetic field lines, required for the propulsive application of the magnetic nozzle, is investigated in detail. Three prevailing detachment theories for magnetic nozzles, relying on plasma resistivity, electron inertia, and the plasma-induced magnetic field, are shown to be inadequate for the propulsive magnetic nozzle, as these mechanisms detach the plume outward, increasing its divergence, rather than focusing it as desired. Instead, plasma detachment is shown to occur essentially due to ion inertia and the gradual demagnetization that takes place downstream, which enable the unbounded inward ion separation from the magnetic lines beyond the turning point of the outermost plasma streamline under rather general conditions. The plasma fraction that remains attached to the field and turns around along the magnetic field back to the thruster is evaluated and shown to be marginal. The plasmainduced magnetic field is shown to increase the divergence of the nozzle and the resulting plasma plume in the propulsive case, and to enhance the demagnetization of the central part of the plasma jet, contrary to existing predictions. The increased demagnetization favors the earlier ion inward separation from the magnetic field. The local current ambipolarity assumption, common to many existing magnetic nozzle models, is critically discussed, showing that it is unsuitable for the study of plasma detachment. A grave mathematical inconsistency in a well-accepted model, related to the acceptance of this assumption, is found out and commented on. The formation and 2D shape of electric double layers in the plasma expansion is studied with the inclusion of an additional suprathermal electron population in the model. When a double layer forms, its curvature is shown to increase the more peripherally suprathermal electrons are injected, the lower the magnetic field strength, and the more divergent the magnetic nozzle is. The twoelectron- temperature plasma is seen to have a greater magnetic-to-total thrust ratio. Notwithstanding, no propulsive advantage of the double layer is found, supporting and reinforcing previous critiques to their proposal as a thrust mechanism. Finally, a general framework of self-similar models of a 2D unmagnetized plasma plume expansion into vacuum is presented and discussed. The error associated with the self-similarity assumption is calculated and shown to be small for hypersonic plasma plumes. Three models of the literature are recovered as particularizations from the general framework and compared.

A regularised continuum damage model based on the mesoscopic scale for soft tissue

Material properties of soft fibrous tissues are highly conditioned by the hierarchical structure of this kind of composites. Collagen based tissues present, at decreasing length scales, a complex framework of fibres, fibrils, tropocollagen molecules and amino-acids. Understanding the mechanical behaviour at nano-scale level is critical to accurately incorporate this structural information in phenomenological damage models. In this work we derive a relationship between the mechanical and geometrical properties of the fibril constituents and the soft tissue material parameters at macroscopic scale. A Hodge–Petruska two-dimensional model has been used to describe the fibrils as staggered arrays of tropocollagen molecules. After a mechanical characterisation of each of the fibril components, two fibril failures modes have been defined related with two planes of weakness. A phenomenological continuous damage model with regularised softening was presented along with meso-structurally based definitions for its material parameters. Finally, numerical analysis at fibril, fibre and tissue levels are presented to show the capabilities of the model

Contraste de las formulaciones existentes para la estimación de la tasa de rebase en diques de abrigo portuario

La investigación que se resume en este artículo, resultante de diversos trabajos realizados en el CEDEX [10, 12], tiene por objeto contrastar las formulaciones desarrolladas por diferentes autores en materia de rebases en distintas tipologías de diques de abrigo. Para ello, se realizó en primer lugar la recopilación y el análisis de las formulaciones existentes para estimar la tasa de rebase sobre diques en talud y verticales. Posteriormente, se llevó a cabo el contraste de dichas formulaciones con los resultados obtenidos en dos ensayos realizados en el Centro de Estudios de Puertos y Costas del CEDEX, en Cabo Prioriño, Ferrol y en la alineación tercera de Melilla. The research that is summarized in this article, resultant of several studies carried out in the CEDEX [10, 12], is focused in the existing methods to estimate overtopping rates developed by different authors. For that, the summary was carry out firstly we collected and analyzed the existing formulae, particularly for rubble mound and vertical breakwaters. These formulations was compared with the results obtained in two hydraulic model tests of the Hydraulic Research Laboratory (the Center of Studies of Ports and Coasts of the CEDEX, Madrid, Spain). Keywords: overtopping rates, rubble mound breakwater, vertical breakwater, crown wall, run-up.

Diabatic quantum gates

At present, several models for quantum computation have been proposed. Adiabatic quantum computation scheme particularly offers this possibility and is based on a slow enough time evolution of the system, where no transitions take place. In this work, a new strategy for quantum computation is provided from the opposite point of view. The objective is to control the non-adiabatic transitions between some states in order to produce the desired exit states after the evolution. The model is introduced by means of an analogy between the adiabatic quantum computation and an inelastic atomic collision. By means of a simple two-state model, several quantum gates are reproduced, concluding the possibility of diabatic universal faulttolerant quantum computation. Going a step further, a new quantum diabatic computation model is glimpsed, where a carefully chosen Hamiltonian could carry out a non-adiabatic transition between the initial and the sought final state.

Coronal fluid-dynamics in laser fusion

The fluid-dynamics of the corona ejected by laser-fusion targets in the direct-drive approach (thermal radiation and atomic physics unimportant) is discussed. A two-fluid model involves inverse bremsstrahlung absorption, refraction, different ion and electron temperatures with energy exchange, different ion and electron velocities and magnetic field generation, and their effect on ion-electron friction and heat flux. Four dimensionless parameters determine coronal regimes for one-dimensional flows under uniform irradiation. One additional parameter is involved in two-dimensional problems,including the stability of one-dimensional flows, and the smoothing of nonuniform driving.

Contraste de las formulaciones existentes para la estimación de la tasa de rebase en diques de abrigo portuario

The research that is summarized in this article, resultant of diverse studies realized in the CEDEX, has for object a comparative analysis of methods of overtopping rates developed by different authors. For that, the summary was realized first and the analysis of the existing formulations to estimate the rate of overtopping on rubble mound and vertical breakwaters. Later, there was carried out the contrast of the above mentioned formulations by the results obtained in two hydraulic model tests of the Hydraulic Research Laboratory (Center of Studies of Ports and Coasts of the CEDEX, Madrid, Spain).

A 2D computational parametric analysis of the sheltering effect of fences on a railway vehicle standing on a bridge and experiencing crosswinds

In a crosswind scenario, the risk of high-speed trains overturning increases when they run on viaducts since the aerodynamic loads are higher than on the ground. In order to increase safety, vehicles are sheltered by fences that are installed on the viaduct to reduce the loads experienced by the train. Windbreaks can be designed to have different heights, and with or without eaves on the top. In this paper, a parametric study with a total of 12 fence designs was carried out using a two-dimensional model of a train standing on a viaduct. To asses the relative effectiveness of sheltering devices, tests were done in a wind tunnel with a scaled model at a Reynolds number of 1 × 105, and the train’s aerodynamic coefficients were measured. Experimental results were compared with those predicted by Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulations of flow, showing that a computational model is able to satisfactorily predict the trend of the aerodynamic coefficients. In a second set of tests, the Reynolds number was increased to 12 × 106 (at a free flow air velocity of 30 m/s) in order to simulate strong wind conditions. The aerodynamic coefficients showed a similar trend for both Reynolds numbers; however, their numerical value changed enough to indicate that simulations at the lower Reynolds number do not provide all required information. Furthermore, the variation of coefficients in the simulations allowed an explanation of how fences modified the flow around the vehicle to be proposed. This made it clear why increasing fence height reduced all the coefficients but adding an eave had an effect mainly on the lift force coefficient. Finally, by analysing the time signals it was possible to clarify the influence of the Reynolds number on the peak-to-peak amplitude, the time period and the Strouhal number.

Sistema de adquisición de datos para una aplicación de detección del ruido de reversa en tiempo real

Entre todas las fuentes de ruido, la activación de la propulsión en reversa de un avión después de aterrizar es conocida por las autoridades del aeropuerto como una causa importante de impacto acústico, molestias y quejas en las proximidades vecinas de los aeropuertos. Por ello, muchos de los aeropuertos de todo el mundo han establecido restricciones en el uso de la reversa, especialmente en las horas de la noche. Una forma de reducir el impacto acústico en las actividades aeroportuarias es implementar herramientas eficaces para la detección de ruido en reversa en los aeropuertos. Para este proyecto de fin de carrera, aplicando la metodología TREND (Thrust Reverser Noise Detection), se pretende desarrollar un sistema software capaz de determinar que una aeronave que aterrice en la pista active el frenado en reversa en tiempo real. Para el diseño de la aplicación se plantea un modelo software, que se compone de dos módulos:  El módulo de adquisición de señales acústicas, simula un sistema de captación por señales de audio. Éste módulo obtiene muestra de señales estéreo de ficheros de audio de formato “.WAV” o del sistema de captación, para acondicionar las muestras de audio y enviarlas al siguiente módulo. El sistema de captación (array de micrófonos), se encuentra situado en una localización cercana a la pista de aterrizaje.  El módulo de procesado busca los eventos de detección aplicando la metodología TREND con las muestras acústicas que recibe del módulo de adquisición. La metodología TREND describe la búsqueda de dos eventos sonoros llamados evento 1 (EV1) y evento 2 (EV2); el primero de ellos, es el evento que se activa cuando una aeronave aterriza discriminando otros eventos sonoros como despegues de aviones y otros sonidos de fondo, mientras que el segundo, se producirá después del evento 1, sólo cuando la aeronave utilice la reversa para frenar. Para determinar la detección del evento 1, es necesario discriminar las señales ajenas al aterrizaje aplicando un filtrado en la señal capturada, después, se aplicará un detector de umbral del nivel de presión sonora y por último, se determina la procedencia de la fuente de sonido con respecto al sistema de captación. En el caso de la detección del evento 2, está basada en la implementación de umbrales en la evolución temporal del nivel de potencia acústica aplicando el modelo de propagación inversa, con ayuda del cálculo de la estimación de la distancia en cada instante de tiempo mientras el avión recorre la pista de aterrizaje. Con cada aterrizaje detectado se realiza una grabación que se archiva en una carpeta específica y todos los datos adquiridos, son registrados por la aplicación software en un fichero de texto. ABSTRACT. Among all noise sources, the activation of reverse thrust to slow the aircraft after landing is considered as an important cause of noise pollution by the airport authorities, as well as complaints and annoyance in the airport´s nearby locations. Therefore, many airports around the globe have restricted the use of reverse thrust, especially during the evening hours. One way to reduce noise impact on airport activities is the implementation of effective tools that deal with reverse noise detection. This Final Project aims to the development of a software system capable of detecting if an aircraft landing on the runway activates reverse thrust on real time, using the TREND (Thrust Reverser Noise Detection) methodology. To design this application, a two modules model is proposed: • The acoustic signals obtainment module, which simulates an audio waves based catchment system. This module obtains stereo signal samples from “.WAV” audio files or the catchment system in order to prepare these audio samples and send them to the next module. The catchment system (a microphone array) is located on a place near the landing runway. • The processing module, which looks for detection events among the acoustic samples received from the other module, using the TREND methodology. The TREND methodology describes the search of two sounds events named event 1 (EV1) and event 2 (EV2). The first is the event activated by a landing plane, discriminating other sound events such as background noises or taking off planes; the second one will occur after event one only when the aircraft uses reverse to slow down. To determine event 1 detection, signals outside the landing must be discriminated using a filter on the catched signal. A pressure level´s threshold detector will be used on the signal afterwards. Finally, the origin of the sound source is determined regarding the catchment system. The detection of event 2 is based on threshold implementations in the temporal evolution of the acoustic power´s level by using the inverse propagation model and calculating the distance estimation at each time step while the plane goes on the landing runway. A recording is made every time a landing is detected, which is stored in a folder. All acquired data are registered by the software application on a text file.

Nonlinear analysis of a simple model of temperature evolution in a satellite

We analyze a simple model of the heat transfer to and from a small satellite orbiting round a solar system planet. Our approach considers the satellite isothermal, with external heat input from the environment and from internal energy dissipation, and output to the environment as black-body radiation. The resulting nonlinear ordinary differential equation for the satellite’s temperature is analyzed by qualitative, perturbation and numerical methods, which prove that the temperature approaches a periodic pattern (attracting limit cycle). This approach can occur in two ways, according to the values of the parameters: (i) a slow decay towards the limit cycle over a time longer than the period, or (ii) a fast decay towards the limit cycle over a time shorter than the period. In the first case, an exactly soluble average equation is valid. We discuss the consequences of our model for the thermal stability of satellites.