Investigations on the distribution of air transport traffic and CO2 emissions within the European Union

This study analyses the structure of air traffic and its distribution among the different countries in the European Union, as well as traffic with an origin or destination in non-EU countries. Data sources are Eurostat statistics and actual flight information from EUROCONTROL. Relevant variables such as the number of flights, passengers or cargo tonnes and production indicators (RPKs) are used together with fuel consumption and CO2 emissions data. The segmentation of air traffic in terms of distance permits an assessment of air transport competition with surface transport modes. The results show a clear concentration of traffic in the five larger countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and UK), in terms of RPKs. In terms of distance the segment between 500 and 1000 km in the EU, has more flights, passengers, RTKs and CO2 emissions than larger distances. On the environmental side, the distribution of CO2 emissions within the EU Member States is presented, together with fuel efficiency parameters. In general, a direct relationship between RPKs and CO2 emissions is observed for all countries and all distance bands. Consideration is given to the uptake of alternative fuels. Segmenting CO2 emissions per distance band and aircraft type reveals which flights contribute the most the overall EU CO2 emissions. Finally, projections for future CO2 emissions are estimated, according to three different air traffic growth and biofuel introduction scenarios.

An introduction to flow and transport in fractal models of porous media: Part I

This special issue gathers together a number of recent papers on fractal geometry and its applications to the modeling of flow and transport in porous media. The aim is to provide a systematic approach for analyzing the statics and dynamics of fluids in fractal porous media by means of theory, modeling and experimentation. The topics covered include lacunarity analyses of multifractal and natural grayscale patterns, random packing's of self-similar pore/particle size distributions, Darcian and non-Darcian hydraulic flows, diffusion within fractals, models for the permeability and thermal conductivity of fractal porous media and hydrophobicity and surface erosion properties of fractal structures.

Assessing the accessibility impact of transport policy by a land-use and transport interaction model - The case of Madrid

Accessibility is an essential concept widely used to evaluate the impact of transport and land-use strategies in urban planning and policy making. Accessibility is typically evaluated by using separately a transport model or a land-use model. This paper embeds two accessibility indicators (i.e., potential and adaptive accessibility) in a land use and transport interaction (LUTI) model in order to assess transport policies implementation. The first aim is to define the adaptive accessibility, considering the competition factor at territorial level (e.g. workplaces and workers). The second aim is to identify the optimal implementation scenario of policy measures using potential and adaptive accessibility indicators. The analysis of the results in terms of social welfare and accessibility changes closes the paper. Two transport policy measures are applied in Madrid region: a cordon toll and increase bus frequency. They have been simulated through the MARS model (Metropolitan Activity Relocation Simulator, i.e. LUTI model). An optimisation procedure is performed by MARS for maximizing the value of the objective function in order to find the optimal policy implementation (first best). Both policy measures are evaluated in terms of accessibility. Results show that the introduction of the accessibility indicators (potential and adaptive) influence the optimal value of the toll price and bus frequency level, generating different results in terms of social welfare. Mapping the difference between potential and adaptive accessibility indicator shows that the main changes occur in areas where there is a strong competition among different land-use opportunities.

Development of a methodology and tool to evaluate the impact of ICT measures on road transport emissions

The paper presents the main elements of a project entitled ICT-Emissions that aims at developing a novel methodology to evaluate the impact of ICT-related measures on mobility, vehicle energy consumption and CO2 emissions of vehicle fleets at the local scale, in order to promote the wider application of the most appropriate ICT measures. The proposed methodology combines traffic and emission modelling at micro and macro scales. These will be linked with interfaces and submodules which will be specifically designed and developed. A number of sources are available to the consortium to obtain the necessary input data. Also, experimental campaigns are offered to fill in gaps of information in traffic and emission patterns. The application of the methodology will be demonstrated using commercially available software. However, the methodology is developed in such a way as to enable its implementation by a variety of emission and traffic models. Particular emphasis is given to (a) the correct estimation of driver behaviour, as a result of traffic-related ICT measures, (b) the coverage of a large number of current vehicle technologies, including ICT systems, and (c) near future technologies such as hybrid, plug-in hybrids, and electric vehicles. The innovative combination of traffic, driver, and emission models produces a versatile toolbox that can simulate the impact on energy and CO2 of infrastructure measures (traffic management, dynamic traffic signs, etc.), driver assistance systems and ecosolutions (speed/cruise control, start/stop systems, etc.) or a combination of measures (cooperative systems).The methodology is validated by application in the Turin area and its capacity is further demonstrated by application in real world conditions in Madrid and Rome.

Methodologies to measure and to manage the decarbonisation of road transport: the case of Spain

El sector del transporte por carretera es uno de los principales contribuyentes de consumo de combustible y emisiones de España. Por lo tanto, la evaluación de los impactos ambientales del tráfico rodado es esencial para los programas de mitigación del cambio climático y la eficiencia energética. Sin embargo, uno de los retos en la planificación del transporte y el diseño de políticas consiste en la aplicación de metodologías de evaluación de emisiones consistentes, el diseño de estrategias y la evaluación de su eficacia. Las metodologías existentes de evaluación de las emisiones del transporte por carretera, utilizan diferentes niveles de análisis y períodos. Sin embargo, estos análisis son puntuales y no existe una continuidad en el análisis de diferentes estrategias o políticas. Esta tesis doctoral proporciona conocimientos y herramientas para el análisis de las políticas destinadas a reducir las emisiones de tráfico, tomando España como caso de estudio. La investigación se estructura en dos partes: i) el desarrollo y aplicación de metodologías para el análisis de factores y políticas que contribuyen en la evolución de las emisiones GEI del transporte por carretera en España; desde una perspectiva nacional; y ii) el desarrollo y aplicación de un marco metodológico para estimar las emisiones del tráfico interurbano y de evaluar estrategias centradas en la operación del tráfico y en la infraestructura. En resumen, esta tesis demuestra la idoneidad de utilizar diferentes herramientas para analizar las emisiones de tráfico desde diferentes puntos de vista. Desde el diseño de políticas de mitigación y eficiencia energética a nivel nacional, a estrategias centradas en la operación del tráfico interurbano y la infraestructura. Road transport is one of the major contributors to fuel consumption and emissions in Spain. Consequently, assessing the environmental impacts of road traffic is essential for climate change mitigation and energy efficiency programs. However, one of the key challenges of policy makers and transport planners consists of implementing consistent assessment emissions methodologies, applying mitigation strategies, and knowing their effectiveness. Current state-of-the-art emissions assessment methodologies estimate emissions from different levels and periods, using different approaches. Nevertheless, these studies are timely and they usually take different methodologies for analysing different strategies or policies, regardless of the assessment as a whole. This doctoral thesis provides knowledge and methodologies for analysing policies designed to reduce road traffic emissions, using the case study of Spain. The research procedure consists of two main scopes: i) the development and application of methodologies for analysing key factors and policies driving the GHG emissions of road transport in Spain; from a national perspective; and ii) the development and application of a road traffic emissions model for assessing operational and infrastructure strategies of the interurban road network at segment level. In summary, this thesis demonstrates the appropriateness to use different tools to analyse road traffic emissions at different levels: from appropriate nationwide mitigation and energy efficiency policies, to strategies focused on the operation of interurban traffic and infrastructure.

Optimal and Long-Term Dynamic Transport Policy Design: Seeking Maximum Social Welfare through a Pricing Scheme.

This article presents an alternative approach to the decision-making process in transport strategy design. The study explores the possibility of integrating forecasting, assessment and optimization procedures in support of a decision-making process designed to reach the best achievable scenario through mobility policies. Long-term evaluation, as required by a dynamic system such as a city, is provided by a strategic Land-Use and Transport Interaction (LUTI) model. The social welfare achieved by implementing mobility LUTI model policies is measured through a cost-benefit analysis and maximized through an optimization process throughout the evaluation period. The method is tested by optimizing a pricing policy scheme in Madrid on a cordon toll in a context requiring system efficiency, social equity and environmental quality. The optimized scheme yields an appreciable increase in social surplus through a relatively low rate compared to other similar pricing toll schemes. The results highlight the different considerations regarding mobility impacts on the case study area, as well as the major contributors to social welfare surplus. This leads the authors to reconsider the cost-analysis approach, as defined in the study, as the best option for formulating sustainability measures.

Levels, sources and seasonality of coarse particles (PM10-PM2.5) in three European capitals e implications for particulate pollution control

Coarse particles of aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 and 10 mm (PMc) are produced by a range of natural (windblown dust and sea sprays) and anthropogenic processes (non-exhaust vehicle emissions, industrial, agriculture, construction and quarrying activities). Although current ambient air quality regulations focus on PM2.5 and PM10, coarse particles are of interest from a public health point of view as they have been associated with certain mortality and morbidity outcomes. In this paper, an analysis of coarse particle levels in three European capitals (London, Madrid and Athens) is presented and discussed. For all three cities we analysed data from both traffic and urban background monitoring sites. The results showed that the levels of coarse particles present significant seasonal, weekly and daily variability. Their wind driven and non-wind driven resuspension as well as their roadside increment due to traffic were estimated. Both the local meteorological conditions and the air mass history indicating long-range atmospheric transport of particles of natural origin are significant parameters that influence the levels of coarse particles in the three cities especially during episodic events.

Assessing urban mobility through participatory scenario building and combined utility-regret assessment

La planificación de la movilidad sostenible urbana es una tarea compleja que implica un alto grado de incertidumbre debido al horizonte de planificación a largo plazo, la amplia gama de paquetes de políticas posibles, la necesidad de una aplicación efectiva y eficiente, la gran escala geográfica, la necesidad de considerar objetivos económicos, sociales y ambientales, y la respuesta del viajero a los diferentes cursos de acción y su aceptabilidad política (Shiftan et al., 2003). Además, con las tendencias inevitables en motorización y urbanización, la demanda de terrenos y recursos de movilidad en las ciudades está aumentando dramáticamente. Como consecuencia de ello, los problemas de congestión de tráfico, deterioro ambiental, contaminación del aire, consumo de energía, desigualdades en la comunidad, etc. se hacen más y más críticos para la sociedad. Esta situación no es estable a largo plazo. Para enfrentarse a estos desafíos y conseguir un desarrollo sostenible, es necesario considerar una estrategia de planificación urbana a largo plazo, que aborde las necesarias implicaciones potencialmente importantes. Esta tesis contribuye a las herramientas de evaluación a largo plazo de la movilidad urbana estableciendo una metodología innovadora para el análisis y optimización de dos tipos de medidas de gestión de la demanda del transporte (TDM). La metodología nueva realizado se basa en la flexibilización de la toma de decisiones basadas en utilidad, integrando diversos mecanismos de decisión contrariedad‐anticipada y combinados utilidad‐contrariedad en un marco integral de planificación del transporte. La metodología propuesta incluye dos aspectos principales: 1) La construcción de escenarios con una o varias medidas TDM usando el método de encuesta que incorpora la teoría “regret”. La construcción de escenarios para este trabajo se hace para considerar específicamente la implementación de cada medida TDM en el marco temporal y marco espacial. Al final, se construyen 13 escenarios TDM en términos del más deseable, el más posible y el de menor grado de “regret” como resultado de una encuesta en dos rondas a expertos en el tema. 2) A continuación se procede al desarrollo de un marco de evaluación estratégica, basado en un Análisis Multicriterio de Toma de Decisiones (Multicriteria Decision Analysis, MCDA) y en un modelo “regret”. Este marco de evaluación se utiliza para comparar la contribución de los distintos escenarios TDM a la movilidad sostenible y para determinar el mejor escenario utilizando no sólo el valor objetivo de utilidad objetivo obtenido en el análisis orientado a utilidad MCDA, sino también el valor de “regret” que se calcula por medio del modelo “regret” MCDA. La función objetivo del MCDA se integra en un modelo de interacción de uso del suelo y transporte que se usa para optimizar y evaluar los impactos a largo plazo de los escenarios TDM previamente construidos. Un modelo de “regret”, llamado “referencedependent regret model (RDRM)” (modelo de contrariedad dependiente de referencias), se ha adaptado para analizar la contribución de cada escenario TDM desde un punto de vista subjetivo. La validación de la metodología se realiza mediante su aplicación a un caso de estudio en la provincia de Madrid. La metodología propuesta define pues un procedimiento técnico detallado para la evaluación de los impactos estratégicos de la aplicación de medidas de gestión de la demanda en el transporte, que se considera que constituye una herramienta de planificación útil, transparente y flexible, tanto para los planificadores como para los responsables de la gestión del transporte. Planning sustainable urban mobility is a complex task involving a high degree of uncertainty due to the long‐term planning horizon, the wide spectrum of potential policy packages, the need for effective and efficient implementation, the large geographical scale, the necessity to consider economic, social, and environmental goals, and the traveller’s response to the various action courses and their political acceptability (Shiftan et al., 2003). Moreover, with the inevitable trends on motorisation and urbanisation, the demand for land and mobility in cities is growing dramatically. Consequently, the problems of traffic congestion, environmental deterioration, air pollution, energy consumption, and community inequity etc., are becoming more and more critical for the society (EU, 2011). Certainly, this course is not sustainable in the long term. To address this challenge and achieve sustainable development, a long‐term perspective strategic urban plan, with its potentially important implications, should be established. This thesis contributes on assessing long‐term urban mobility by establishing an innovative methodology for optimizing and evaluating two types of transport demand management measures (TDM). The new methodology aims at relaxing the utility‐based decision‐making assumption by embedding anticipated‐regret and combined utilityregret decision mechanisms in an integrated transport planning framework. The proposed methodology includes two major aspects: 1) Construction of policy scenarios within a single measure or combined TDM policy‐packages using the survey method incorporating the regret theory. The purpose of building the TDM scenarios in this work is to address the specific implementation in terms of time frame and geographic scale for each TDM measure. Finally, 13 TDM scenarios are built in terms of the most desirable, the most expected and the least regret choice by means of the two‐round Delphi based survey. 2) Development of the combined utility‐regret analysis framework based on multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA). This assessment framework is used to compare the contribution of the TDM scenario towards sustainable mobility and to determine the best scenario considering not only the objective utility value obtained from the utilitybased MCDA, but also a regret value that is calculated via a regret‐based MCDA. The objective function of the utility‐based MCDA is integrated in a land use and transport interaction model and is used for optimizing and assessing the long term impacts of the constructed TDM scenarios. A regret based model, called referente dependent regret model (RDRM) is adapted to analyse the contribution of each TDM scenario in terms of a subjective point of view. The suggested methodology is implemented and validated in the case of Madrid. It defines a comprehensive technical procedure for assessing strategic effects of transport demand management measures, which can be useful, transparent and flexible planning tool both for planners and decision‐makers.

Optimal and Long-Term Dynamic Transport Policy Design: Seeking Maximum Social Welfare through a Pricing Scheme

This article presents an alternative approach to the decision-making process in transport strategy design. The study explores the possibility of integrating forecasting, assessment and optimization procedures in support of a decision-making process designed to reach the best achievable scenario through mobility policies. Long-term evaluation, as required by a dynamic system such as a city, is provided by a strategic Land-Use and Transport Interaction (LUTI) model. The social welfare achieved by implementing mobility LUTI model policies is measured through a cost-benefit analysis and maximized through an optimization process throughout the evaluation period. The method is tested by optimizing a pricing policy scheme in Madrid on a cordon toll in a context requiring system efficiency, social equity and environmental quality. The optimized scheme yields an appreciable increase in social surplus through a relatively low rate compared to other similar pricing toll schemes. The results highlight the different considerations regarding mobility impacts on the case study area, as well as the major contributors to social welfare surplus. This leads the authors to reconsider the cost-analysis approach, as defined in the study, as the best option for formulating sustainability measures.

Transport interchange and local urban environment integration

Among the different interchange design aspects, integrated land use and infrastructure planning is maybe one of the most problematic fields in practice, given that a joint transport and urban planning spills over the regular scope of action of interchange developers, whereas it involves the cooperation and agreement of various authorities. Not only this, but the very issue of land use-transport integration seems to be a long-standing mantra in planning and transport research, lacking scientific evidence. This paper is an output of an ongoing European research project called ?NODES - New tOols for Design and OpEration of Urban Transport InterchangeS?. Its aim is to start re-focusing the academic-scientific evidence on the question and to foresee a specific and practical framework to approach the problem. The underlying hypothesis is that the interchange could be a catalyst of life and security in the city.

Understanding how to reduce road transport emissions : modelling the impact of eco-driving

Entre los problemas medioambientales más trascendentales para la sociedad, se encuentra el del cambio climático así como el de la calidad del aire en nuestras áreas metropolitanas. El transporte por carretera es uno de los principales causantes, y como tal, las administraciones públicas se enfrentan a estos problemas desde varios ángulos: Cambios a modos de transporte más limpios, nuevas tecnologías y combustibles en los vehículos, gestión de la demanda y el uso de tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (ICT) aplicadas al transporte. En esta tesis doctoral se plantea como primer objetivo el profundizar en la comprensión de cómo ciertas medidas ICT afectan al tráfico, las emisiones y la propia dinámica de los vehículos. El estudio se basa en una campaña de recogida de datos con vehículos flotantes para evaluar los impactos de cuatro medidas concretas: Control de velocidad por tramo, límites variables de velocidad, limitador de velocidad (control de crucero) y conducción eficiente (eco‐driving). Como segundo objetivo, el estudio se centra en la conducción eficiente, ya que es una de las medidas que más ahorros de combustible presenta a nivel individual. Aunque estas reducciones están suficientemente documentadas en la literatura, muy pocos estudios se centran en estudiar el efecto que los conductores eficientes pueden tener en el flujo de tráfico, y cuál sería el impacto si se fuera aumentando el porcentaje de este tipo de conductores. A través de una herramienta de microsimulación de tráfico, se han construido cuatro modelos de vías urbanas que se corresponden con una autopista urbana, una arteria, un colector y una vía local. Gracias a los datos recogidos en la campaña de vehículos flotantes, se ha calibrado el modelo, tanto el escenario base como el ajuste de parámetros de conducción para simular la conducción eficiente. En total se han simulado 72 escenarios, variando el tipo de vía, la demanda de tráfico y el porcentaje de conductores eficientes. A continuación se han calculado las emisiones de CO2 and NOx mediante un modelo de emisiones a nivel microscópico. Los resultados muestran que en escenarios con alto porcentaje de conductores eficientes y altas demandas de tráfico las emisiones aumentan. Esto se debe a que las mayores distancias de seguridad y las aceleraciones y frenadas suaves hacen que aumente la congestión, produciendo así mayores emisiones a nivel global. Climate change and the reduced air quality in our metropolitan areas are two of the main environmental problems that the society is addressing currently. Being road transportation one of the main contributors, public administrations are facing these problems from different points of view: shift to cleaner modes, new fuels and vehicle technologies, demand management and the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) applied to transportation. The first objective of this thesis is to understand how certain ICT measures affect traffic, emissions and vehicle dynamics. The study is based on a data collection campaign with floating vehicles to evaluate the impact of four specific measures: section speed control, variable speed limits, cruise control and eco‐driving. The second objective of the study focuses on eco‐driving, as it is one of the measures that present the largest fuel savings at an individual level. Although these savings are well documented in the literature, few studies focus on how ecodrivers affect the surrounding vehicles and the traffic, and what would be the impact in case of different eco‐drivers percentage. Using a traffic micro‐simulation tool, four models in urban context have been built, corresponding to urban motorway, urban arterial, urban collector and a local street. Both the base‐case and the parameters setting to simulate eco‐driving have been calibrated with the data collected through floating vehicles. In total 72 scenarios were simulated, varying the type of road, traffic demand and the percentage of eco‐drivers. Then, the CO2 and NOx emissions have been estimated through the use of an emission model at microscopic level. The results show that in scenarios with high percentage of co‐drivers and high traffic demand the emissions rise. Higher headways and smooth acceleration and decelerations increase congestion, producing higher emissions globally.

Analysis of house prices to assess economic impacts of new public transport infrastructure: Madrid metro line 12.

Transportation infrastructure is known to affect the value of real estate property by virtue of changes in accessibility. The impact of transportation facilities is highly localized as well, and it is possible that spillover effects result from the capitalization of accessibility. The objective of this study was to review the theoretical background related to spatial hedonic models and the opportunities that they provided to evaluate the effect of new transportation infrastructure. An empirical case study is presented: the Madrid Metro Line 12, known as Metrosur, in the region of Madrid, Spain. The effect of proximity to metro stations on housing prices was evaluated. The analysis took into account a host of variables, including structure, location, and neighborhood and made use of three modeling approaches: linear regression estimation with ordinary least squares, spatial error, and spatial lag. The results indicated that better accessibility to Metrosur stations had a positive impact on real estate values and that the effect was marked in cases in which a house was for sale. The results also showed the presence of submarkets, which were well defined by geographic boundaries, and transport fares, which implied that the economic benefits differed across municipalities.

Small aircraft as a means of transport in Spain

Personal aviation represented 9% of the aircraft movement in Europe in 2006, and it is expected to grow over the coming years. According to the European Personal Air Transportation System (EPATS) study, Spain, along with France and Italy, are the European countries with greater growth prospects. The objective of this paper is to present research results focused on the potential growth of the personal aviation market in Spain and its regions. The research is mainly based on the secondary data of a survey (Movilia) from the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and Transport.

Origin and patterns of distribution of trace elements in street dust. Unleaded petrol and urban lead

The elemental composition, patterns of distribution and possible sources of street dust are not common to all urban environments, but vary according to the peculiarities of each city. The common features and dissimilarities in the origin and nature of street dust were investigated through a series of studies in two widely different cities, Madrid (Spain) and Oslo (Norway), between 1990 and 1994. The most comprehensive sampling campaign was carried out in the Norwegian capital during the summer of 1994. An area of 14 km2, covering most of downtown Oslo and some residential districts to the north of the city, was divided into 1 km2 mapping units, and 16 sampling increments of approximately 150 g were collected from streets and roads in each of them. The fraction below 100 μm was acid-digested and analysed by ICP-MS. Statistical analyses of the results suggest that chemical elements in street dust can be classified into three groups: “urban” elements (Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Mg, Pb, Sb, Ti, Zn), “natural” elements (Al, Ga, La, Mn, Na, Sr, Th, Y) and elements of a mixed origin or which have undergone geochemical changes from their original sources (Ca, Cs, Fe, Mo, Ni, Rb, Sr, U). Soil resuspension and/or mobilisation appears to be the most important source of “natural” elements, while “urban” elements originate primarily from traffic and from the weathering and corrosion of building materials. The data for Pb seem to prove that the gradual shift from leaded to unleaded petrol as fuel for automobiles has resulted in an almost proportional reduction in the concentration of Pb in dust particles under 100 μm. This fact and the spatial distribution of Pb in the city strongly suggest that lead sources other than traffic (i.e. lead accumulated in urban soil over the years) may contribute as much lead, if not more, to urban street dust.

Rebalancing urban mobility: a tale of four cities

The key of mobility in urban planning is not in dispute. Integrated strategies that take into account the interrelations among land use, transport supply and demand and the different transportation modes are more necessary than ever. In Europe, regulatory tools such as local mobility plans or traffic plans have been enforced for a long time, evolving into so-called sustainable urban transport plans (SUTP) ? that is, plans thatmerge urban planning,mobility governance, social awareness and environmental safeguards to develop a vision based on sustainability and equity. Indeed, SUTP are aimed at solving typical problems in current land use, such as urban sprawl, which make clear the need for a paradigm shift from transport (or mobility) planning to land use (or city) planning, thereby producing urban mobility plans that are fully aligned with integrated urban development plans. This paper describes how SUTP are articulated across Europe according to four case studies: Peterborough (UK), Chambe¿ry (France), Ferrara (Italy) and Pinto (Spain), to highlight variations and commonalities, both among the four national legal frameworks and the actual planning processes at the local level. Objectives, measures and indicators used in the monitoring and evaluation phases have been analysed and the results assessed. The main conclusion of the paper is that, as seen in these real-life examples, the lack of integration between spatial planning and transport strategies results in the unsustainability of urban areas and, therefore, in a significant loss of competitiveness.